Master 1 Renewable Energies - Applied Thermodynamics Course

Chapter II: Study of Thermodynamic Cycles

By definition, a thermodynamic cycle is a set of transformations of a system that goes through
a certain number of states before returning to its initial state.
These cycles are most often ideal and serve as a theoretical basis for the study of more complex cycles and to the
modeling of real cycles.
L’étude des cycles thermodynamiques réels est difficile car les phénomènes physiques que le système subit
are numerous and complex.
Moreover, the thermodynamic behavior of fluids is often complex (e.g., the assumption of
perfect gas is not necessarily a sufficient modeling approximation and the transformations
are irreversible. However, irreversibilities arise from local physical phenomena that are very difficult
to model at the macroscopic scale which is that of the study of cycles.
To study the main characteristics of a real cycle, it is necessary to create an idealization of it.
idealization involves closely approaching the real cycle to retain its main characteristics while
by simplifying it in order to study it analytically.

Figure: Idealization of a real thermodynamic cycle; the cycle is idealized by two isochors.
and two isentropic
We distinguish two major classes of cycles:
–the cycles without fluid circulation;
–the cycles with fluid circulation.
Cycles without fluid circulation are such that it is always the same system (same material) that undergoes.
the different thermodynamic transformations throughout the cycle; we then perform balances on a
closed system. At each moment, the entire fluid undergoes a single transformation.
In cycles with circulation, the fluid flows through various components (compressor, exchanger,
etc.) separated by pipes. The fluid thus circulates through each component taken separately; we
then perform assessments on open systems (one system for each component of the circuit). If we
consider the fluid of the entire circuit, all the transformations take place at the same time but at
different places: one part is compressed in a compressor and another part is heated in
a heat exchanger for example.
These fluids that describe thermodynamic cycles are used in machines to transform either
heat into work, or work into heat. The machines that transform heat (Q > 0) into
Work (W < 0) is classified in the category of engines (thermal) and those that transform work
(W > 0) in heat (Q < 0) are classified in the category of heat pumps and refrigerators (these are
refrigerating machines). All these machines are characterized by their efficiency.

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There are an infinite number of possible cycles to perform this kind of transformation, but they all involve
at least four energy transfers: compression, heating, expansion, and a
cooling.
These evolutions can be separated in space or in time, depending on the constraints.
technological and practical, some of these transfers can be carried out simultaneously.

Figure: Thermodynamic cycle engine.

The fluid absorbs heat provided at high temperature THThe compression power is lower.
that the power at release: the net power in the form of work = + ̇ is negative.
̇ ̇

Figure: Thermodynamic cycle engine carried out by separating the steps in time (rather than in
the space as represented in the figure above). The fluid is heated by a heat source to
high temperature THThe net work ̇ = + ̇ is negative.
̇

When work is supplied to a fluid, its temperature increases (be careful of the change of state) and it can
thus providing heat to a body that was initially at a higher temperature ('hotter') than it.

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Conversely, when a fluid is expanded, its temperature decreases and it can thus absorb heat from a body.
who was initially "colder" than him.
By performing these steps one after the other, we obtain a refrigeration cycle: a machine capable
to extract heat at low temperature and release it at high temperature.

Figure: Refrigeration thermodynamic cycle, used in refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps
to heat.
A power ̇ form of heat is captured at low temperature (the fluid is heated) while
in the
a power ̇
is rejected at high temperature (the fluid is then cooled).

Figure: Refrigeration cycle carried out by separating the steps in time (rather than in space
as shown in the previous figure.
In practice in refrigeration systems, to lower the temperature: instead of a turbine, we...
use a simple valve (sometimes called a regulator). It is a component without moving parts that does not allow
no work is released (it therefore increases the power consumed by the machine), but it is much
easier to manufacture and use.
This modification is described in the figure below:

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Figure: Modified refrigeration cycle.

When using liquids/vapors, it is possible to forgo extracting work during expansion.
The use of a simple valve is enough to lower the fluid temperature. The valve, in terms of
thermodynamics allows for a completely irreversible expansion, increasing the volume and
lowering the pressure without extracting work.
Refrigeration cycles have two main types of applications:
Heat pumps also called thermopumps (figure below) are arranged to reject
the heat towards a body at high temperature, most often a dwelling;

Figure: Arrangement of a heat pump. The machine is positioned to discharge inside.

(where the temperature is higher) the heat taken from the outside (where the temperature is lower).
Refrigerators and air conditioners (figure below) are arranged to extract heat from a
low temperature body, most often a cold room.

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Figure: Arrangement of a refrigerator or air conditioner. The machine is positioned to discharge

outside (where the temperature is higher) the heat taken from inside (where the temperature is lower)
bass).
In these two types of applications, it is exactly the same machine, operating with the same
cycle. The only difference concerns the indoor/outdoor arrangement of the components: a heat pump
is nothing more or less than a refrigerator positioned so that it "cools the outside".

The yield or efficiency of a thermal machine compare the transfer or useful transformation
that it performs with the energy cost it generates. The adopted principle definition is as follows:

≡| |
é é é
Engine efficiency
The function of a thermal engine, such as those found in cars or in the
power plants, is to produce work, that is to say a quantity ̇
negative. The expense
generated to generate this work is the heat it receives, that is to say the amount ̇
(coming from
usually from fuel combustion or the fission of atomic nuclei.

We wish to obtain a large transfer. ̇

result from the
transfer ̇ (cost).
The rejection ̇ is undesirable.

According to the definition, the engine efficiency of the thermal engine is

̇
so: =| ̇ |

Associated energy transfers

to an engine

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 Master 1 Renewable Energies - Applied Thermodynamics Course

Application: An automobile engine receives a power of 100 kW in the form of heat from the
gasoline combustion; it provides 55 kW in the form of work to the drive shaft. Calculate its
performance.
Efficiency of a refrigerator or air conditioner
The function of a refrigerator or air conditioner is to extract heat, that is to say to generate a
power ̇
(heat extracted every second from the compartment to be cooled) with a positive sign. This transfer
is made possible by the contribution to the refrigerator of a work, ̇ , a "spending" necessarily positive.

We want to achieve a large transfer. ̇

(result) from the transfer
̇ (cost)

According to the definition, the yield (also sometimes called coefficient of

performance, or COPrefrigerationof a refrigerator or an air conditioner is
̇
so: é é = ̇
| =|

Energy transfers
associated with a refrigerator or
to an air conditioner

Application: A refrigerator consumes an electric power of 1000W; it extracts heat from the
cold room with a power of 120W. Calculate its efficiency.
–Performance of a heat pump
A heat pump works exactly the same way as an air conditioner. Its function is to
generate a transfer ̇ to the 'warm' section (usually the inside of a dwelling). This transfer
is made possible by the contribution to the heat pump of a necessarily positive 'expense' . ̇

We want to achieve a large transfer ̇ (result) from the

transfer ̇ (cost).

According to the definition, the efficiency of a heat pump

̇
(COPheat pump) is therefore: ℎ =̇ | |

Energy transfers
associated with a heat pump

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Application: A heat pump consumes an electrical power of 1000W; it heats the interior.
from a device with a power of 350W. Calculate its efficiency.

In alternative internal combustion engines, combustion occurs within the fluid itself.
engine. It is the same fluid that pushes the piston and undergoes combustion.
Examples: gasoline engine, diesel engine...
The design of internal combustion engines dates back to the second half of the 19th [Link]. The first
The industrial internal combustion engine is the gas engine created by Lenoir in 1859. Its efficiency did not become good
when Ottolui applied the compression imagined by Beau de Rochas in 1877. These engines are 2 or
in 4 strokes. The double-acting piston is no longer used.
Combustion is triggered either:
by a spark at a given moment (gasoline engine);
by spraying fuel into hot pressurized air (diesel engine).
The internal combustion engine is characterized by:
A low compression ratio for gasoline engines (8 to 10), higher (for diesel engines);
A preparation of the fuel mixture (carburetor, injection...)
An ignition of the fuel mixture at the end of compression;
A combustion producing NO pollutants2CO2;
A cylinder diameter between a few mm and a maximum of 200mm.
Lenoir Cycle
The Lenoir cycle is a two-stroke engine, very similar to the early steam engines:
1st stage: admission, combustion, expansion
–2nd time: Escape
The piston is double-acting, with the piston working on one side at each half-turn.

The phases of the cycle are broken down in the following order:
–0 1 : admission, inflammation en (1) ;
-1 2: combustion isochore;
-2 3: adiabatic expansion.
Assuming that the system behaves like a perfect gas (whose adiabatic exponent is ) the
-1( )
the yield of the cycle isη =1− , with = 3the compression ratio.
-1 1

Carnot Cycle
Refer to the Undergraduate Thermodynamics course

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–Cycled’Otto, cycle of Beau de Rochas

This spark-ignition engine is a four-stroke engine: it is the theoretical cycle of engines.
essence.

Theoretical cycle Real cycle

The theoretical cycle consists of two isentropic transformations and two isochoric transformations.
The BC and DE transformations can only be considered adiabatic (isentropic) if
They are very fast at limiting the flow of heat to the outside environment.
If we consider that an automobile engine runs at about 4000 revolutions/min, the crankshaft makes 2
cycles per minute, there are 2000 cycles/min, which corresponds to a cycle duration of 3.10-2The transformation is therefore fast.
The cycle transformations will only be reversible if the temperature of the engine walls follows the
temperature variations of the system.
This condition is impossible to achieve because the walls must be cooled (by air or water circulation)
to avoid undergoing deformations. Real transformations are therefore irreversible.
In the case of the real cycle, the transfer work A'B'A' is not null.
Assuming that the system behaves like an ideal gas (whose adiabatic exponent is ) the

cycle yield isη = 1 − = 1 − ( ) =1−B1− , with = the compression rate

volumetric.
Cycle Diesel
This internal combustion engine operates by spontaneous ignition of the diesel injected into the previously air.
compressed, under high pressure. This strong compression applied to air alone poses no risk.
inflammation.

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The compression ratio can reach a value of 20. The fuel requires less extensive refining than
that of the essence.

Like the gasoline engine, the diesel engine is a four-stroke engine:

The cycle consists of two isentropic transformations, one isobaric transformation and a
transformation isochore. The cycle efficiency depends on and of two parameters:
Compression volume ratio ;

Volumetric ratio at the exhaust .

− −
( −) ( )
= − −
− −
( −) ( )

The external combustion engine or external combustion engine is a thermal machine where energy is
supplied by two external sources (one hot and one cold) of heat and converted into mechanical energy
through a heat transfer fluid undergoing a closed thermodynamic cycle.
It is recalled that, in these cycles, the fluid circulates through the various components of the machine.
thermodynamics and through the pipes that connect these components.
No combustion occurs inside the engine and the fluid remains confined within the engine. The heating
can also be done without combustion: sun, thermal engine or nuclear power plant.

Stirling cycle:
The Stirling engine, invented and patented in 1816 by Robert Stirling and his brother James, is an engine that
external combustion, featuring two pistons. Its high efficiency allows it to be used in the
cogeneration installations. This very quiet engine is also used to power certain ships.
naval forces (submarines...).

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Consider a cylinder consisting of two parts assumed to be isothermal:

the upper part is heated (external burner...)
the lower part is cooled (circulation of cold water....).

The Stirling engine uses two pistons:

the working piston whose functionality lies in the rotation of a shaft, through
of a connecting rod;

the displacing piston, whose role is to distribute the volume of gas between the hot compartment and the
cold compartment.
The main fluid of the theoretical Stirling engine is a gas subjected to a cycle comprising four phases:
isothermal compression, isochoric heating, isothermal expansion, and isochoric cooling. The goal of
The engine is to produce mechanical energy from thermal energy.

The cycle yield depends on the ratio = temperatures of the two heat sources:
1
η=1-
Note: this efficiency is identical to that of the Carnot engine cycle.

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Note: the Stirling cycle is reversible: a Stirling engine driven by another engine becomes
oneheat pump capable of cooling down to -200 °C or heating up to over 700 °C, depending on the direction
training.
The main commercial application of Stirling is in the field of industrial refrigeration.
military. It can serve as a machine for the liquefaction of gases, as a cooler for systems of
infrared military guidance and as an electricity generator.
Ericsson Cycle

Starting from point 1, the fluid is compressed in an isothermal and reversible manner. To maintain the fluid
isotherm at temperature T1it is necessary to subtract from the calorific power 21to ̇
the fluid. The
The fluid then passes through a heat exchanger called a regenerator where it receives thermal power.
̇ 32 The fluid is maintained at constant pressure.
The fluid is then expanded isothermally and reversibly. To keep the fluid isothermal at the
temperature T2it is necessary to provide a heating power 34from ̇
the outside. The power
mechanical energy produced by the turbine during this expansion is partly used to operate the
compressor, the supplement W' being provided externally.
The fluid finally passes into the reversible adiabatic regenerator where it delivers the thermal power. ̇
32to
fluid between points 2 and 3. The regenerator is assumed to be perfectly adiabatic.
It is important to note that the exchange of thermal power 32and thė mechanical power transmitted
through the turbine and the compressor are internal exchange processes within the thermodynamic machine.
The Ericsson engine was patented in 183 by John Ericsson. This thermodynamic cycle is composed of
two isothermal transformations and two isobaric transformations, that is, a four-stroke cycle.

2
The energy efficiency of the Ericsson cycle isEta = 1 - identical to that of a Carnot engine cycle
1

operating between the two same sources.

Brayton Cycle

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From point 1, the fluid is compressed adiabatically and reversibly. The fluid then passes into
an isobaric heat exchanger where it receives (in a reversible manner) a positive thermal power: 2> ̇
0The fluid is then expanded adiabatically and reversibly. The mechanical power produced by
The turbine during this expansion is partly used to operate the compressor, the supplement.
| ′|̇ being provided outside:W' < 0. ̇
The fluid then transfers heat through a second reversible isobaric heat exchanger: 1< 0.̇

The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle with a gas working fluid. It is named after the engineer.
American George Brayton (1830–1892) who developed it, although his invention is attributed to Barber in
1791. It is also known as the Joule cycle. The Ericsson cycle is similar to it, although it uses
an external heat source and incorporates a regenerator. This thermodynamic cycle is composed of
of two isentropic transformations and two isobaric transformations, that is, a four-stroke cycle.
1
The energy efficiency of the Ericsson cycle isη = 1 - -1 .
( 2)
1

This relationship shows that the efficiency of a Brayton cycle increases with the pressure ratio of the
turbine and with (if the fluid is different from air). This result, obtained from this theoretical ideal cycle is
effectively observed on real thermodynamic cycles based on the principle of the Brayton cycle.
Rankine cycle
The Stirling, Ericsson, and Brayton cycles are gas cycles. The Rankine cycle corresponds to the cycle
ideal of a steam cycle, that is to say in which a liquid/vapor phase change occurs.

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At point 1, the fluid is in liquid form. It passes through a pump, which increases its pressure (from
reversible adiabatic process; point 2). The pump thus provides the fluid with mechanical power. ′2>
0The fluid is then heated as it passes through a boiler, also called an evaporator. As its name
As indicated, the boiler allows for the complete evaporation of water and the creation of superheated steam (point 3).
A heating power 20is ̇ to the fluid in the boiler and the fluid pressure is assumed
supplied
stay constant. The superheated steam is then expanded in a turbine assumed to be adiabatic
reversible (point 4). The energy of the fluid is then converted into mechanical energy, and thus we have ′1< 0.
The fluid may exit the turbine in a slightly multiphase form. It then passes into a condenser.
which allows to completely condense the fluid that exits the condenser in a single-phase form
liquid (point 1). The fluid giving off energy to the outside during the passage through the condenser, we have ̇ 1< 0.
The cycle described here is a motive cycle: it is used to provide mechanical power. But the Rankine cycle
can also be used in the reverse sense, for example as a refrigeration machine.
For each component of the cycle, the energy balance gives:
∆ℎ̇ = +̇ ′ ̇
Considering the characteristics of the different transformations, we have:
ℎ(̇2− ℎ1= )′2 ̇
ℎ(̇3− ℎ2= )2 ̇
ℎ(̇4− ℎ3= )′1 ̇
ℎ(1̇ − ℎ4= )1 ̇
On the cycle, we have:̇ ′1̇ + ′ 2+ 1̇ + ̇
2= 0.
Analytical calculations are much less straightforward than for gas cycles due to the complexity of
thermodynamic models of the fluid for its liquid and vapor phases. The use of tables
thermodynamics (or thermodynamic diagrams) is often necessary.
In the case of an engine cycle, the energy efficiency of the cycle is given by:
| ′̇ 2+ ′1 |̇
=
̇2

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