Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PROJECT ADVISOR
DR. M. SHEHATA
SUBMITTED BY
1. AFZAL WASEEM (500468008) 2. FERIADOON KABAIRZAD
Contents
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................ 4 1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 5 Skid Resistance ...................................................................................................................................... 5 Microtexture & Macrotexture .............................................................................................................. 5 Skid Resistance of Concrete Pavements ............................................................................................... 6 4.1 5. 6. Concrete Mix ................................................................................................................................. 6
Skid Resistance of Flexible Pavements ................................................................................................. 6 Skid Resistance Measuring System ....................................................................................................... 7 6.1 6.2 6.3 (ASTM) E-274 Procedure ............................................................................................................... 7 Measurement of Skid Resistance .................................................................................................. 7 Measurement Techniques for Skid Resistance ............................................................................. 7 Locked Wheel Tester............................................................................................................. 7 Spin Up Tester ....................................................................................................................... 8 BS Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester .................................................................................... 9 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM) ................................... 9
Surface Texture Measurement ........................................................................................................... 10 7.1 7.2 Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965) .............................................................................................. 10 Laser or advanced images processing equipment ...................................................................... 11 ROSAN ................................................................................................................................. 11 ROBOTEX ............................................................................................................................. 11 Circular Texture Meter (CT Meter) ..................................................................................... 12
Characteristics ..................................................................................................................................... 13 8.1 8.2 8.3 Rapid Fall of Skid resistance ........................................................................................................ 13 Smooth and Treaded tire ............................................................................................................ 13 Skid Resistance and Water of Pavement surface ............................................................................... 13
8.4 8.5
Effect of Bleeding on skid resistance .......................................................................................... 14 Effect of texture on Skid Resistance ........................................................................................... 14 Effect of longitudinal texturing on Skid Resistance ............................................................ 14 Effect of transverse texturing on Skid Resistance ............................................................... 14
8.5.1 8.5.2 9.
Improvements ..................................................................................................................................... 14 9.1 Improvements in Concrete Pavements ............................................................................................ 14 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.2 Grooving .............................................................................................................................. 14 Brooms in concrete Pavements .......................................................................................... 15
Improvement of skid resistance in terms of Materials ............................................................... 16 Seal Coat.............................................................................................................................. 16 Polished aggregate .............................................................................................................. 16 Sedimentary rocks............................................................................................................... 16
Ontario Skid Resistance Guidelines..................................................................................................... 17 Friction Classification system in Ontario......................................................................................... 17 Low friction pavement surface identification criteria .................................................................... 17 Noise Guidelines for Ontario........................................................................................................... 18
List of Figures
Figure 1 Water spraying mechanism in locked wheel tester ......................................................... 8 Figure 2 Lock Wheeled Skid Tester ................................................................................................. 8 Figure 3 Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester (BSI, 1990) ................................................................... 9 Figure 4 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM)............................. 10 Figure 5. Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965) (Source images: Hanson & Prowell) ....................... 10 Figure 6. Sand Patch Method Spreading of Sand ......................................................................... 10 Figure 7. Prototype ROSAN Device (circa 1998) ........................................................................... 11 Figure 8. ROBOTEX and Output 3-D Texture Graph ..................................................................... 12 Figure 9. Circular Texture Meter ASTM E 2157-01 ....................................................................... 12 Figure 10. (Smooth and Treaded Tire) Graph between skid number and speed ......................... 13 Figure 11. (Water depth effect) Graph between Skid Number and Speed .................................. 13 Figure 12. Transverse grooving by the Cure/Texture Machine (left) and by Hand Methods ...... 15 Figure 13. Broom finish in transverse direction ........................................................................... 15 Figure 14. Texture curing machine TCM 950 ................................................................................ 15 Figure 15. Texture of a concrete pavement after Brooming ........................................................ 16
1. Introduction
According to a U.S. study of collision data, in 2001 more than 22 percent of collisions nationwide were weather-related. More than 16 percent of fatalities and over 20 percent of injuries in passenger vehicles occurred in adverse weather and/or on slick pavements. Study shows that most accidents occur due to poor friction between tire and road surface. Skid resistance is a measure of the friction that develops when a tire is prevented from rotating and instead skids along the pavement surface. A system of measurement of skid resistance has been developed to calculate this friction between road surfaces.
2. Skid Resistance
Skid resistance is the force developed when a tire that is prevented from rotating slides along the pavement surface (Highway Research Board, 1972). Skid resistance is actually the measurement of the resistance to move when a vehicle is skid on the surface of the road. Skid resistance is required for many purpose e.g
Poor skid resistance means increased chances of vehicular accidents on road in severe weather conditions. Skid resistance is a measure of safety that is used to interoperate the level of safety in road surface conditions Skid resistance can be used to examine the different types of pavement surface coatings that can act safely. Skid resistance depends on a pavement surface's microtexture and macrotexture (Corley-Lay, 1998).
The macrotexture gives a series of paths for the rain water to deposit between the pavement surface and tire. This water adversely affects the skid resistance quality of the road. After some time most of the water will be removed from these paths and the tire surface will make contact with the tire surface. This macro texture should be controlled to improve the skid resistance of the pavement surface. The division between macrotexture and microtexture is arbitrarily set at a texture depth of 0.5 mm, as defined in ASTM E 867 "Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Traveled Surface Characteristics."
Comments Take measures to correct Acceptable for low volume roads Monitor pavement frequently Acceptable for heavily traveled roads
A means to transport water (usually 750 to 1900 liters (200 to 500 gallons)) and the necessary apparatus to deliver it in front of the test wheel at test speed
Figure 1 Water spraying mechanism in locked wheel tester A transducer associated with the test wheel that senses the force developed between the skidding test wheel and the pavement. Electronic signal conditioning equipment to receive the transducer output signal and modify it as required. Suitable analog and/or digital readout equipment to record either the magnitude of the developed force or the calculated value of the resulting Skid Number (SN).
Figure 2 Lock Wheeled Skid Tester To take a measurement, the vehicle (or trailer) is brought to the desired testing speed (typically 64 km/hr (40 mph) and water is sprayed ahead of the test tire to create a wetted pavement surface. The test tire braking system is then actuated to lock the test tire. Instrumentation measures the friction force acting between the test tire and the pavement and reports the result as a Skid Number (SN). Standard locked-wheel friction tests are: AASHTO T 242: Frictional Properties of Paved Surfaces Using a Full-Scale Tire ASTM E 274: Skid Resistance of Paved Surfaces Using a Full-Scale Tire 6.3.2 Spin Up Tester A spin up tester has the same basic setup as a locked wheel tester but operates in an opposite manner. For a spin up tester, the vehicle (or trailer) is brought to the desired testing speed (typically 64 km/hr (40 mph)) and a locked test wheel is lowered to the pavement surface. The test wheel braking system is then released and the test wheel is allowed to "spin up" to normal traveling speed due to its contact with the pavement.
Mathematically, the friction force at the tire/pavement interface at any moment corresponds to that which would be present if the locked tire were pulled along the pavement at the testing speed (Wambold et al., 1990). The spin up tester offers two advantages over the locked wheel tester: 1. No force measurement is necessary; the force can be computed by knowing the test wheel's moment of inertia and its rotational acceleration (Wambold et al., 1990). Force measuring devices for the locked wheel tester cost a significant amount of money. 2. Because the test tire is in contact with the pavement while locked for a much shorter time than the locked wheel tester, it significantly reduces test tire wear. 6.3.3 BS Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester It is the most commonly used skid resistance measuring instrument that can be found everywhere due to its portable nature. This instrument was first developed by the Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRR) in Britain. It has been found that this instrument gives efficient values and due to its portable nature it was also adopted by ASTM and is now included in ASTM E 303 "Standard Method for Measuring Surface Friction Properties Using the British Pendulum Tester This instrument was developed Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) of UK. Its objective is to measure texture depth and skid resistance of a road surface, to estimate the vulnerability of an aggregate to Figure 3 Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester (BSI, 1990) polishing under traffic by determining its Polished Stone Value (PSV). This instrument measures the value in British Pendulum Number (BPN) that has the scale from 0 to 150, where higher is the BPN value means higher is the skid resistance of the Pavement surface. This device simulates the skid resistance offered by a road surface to a motor car travelling at 50 km/h. It gives a number, being a percentage, somewhat converting to a coefficient of friction. 6.3.4 Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM) Subsequently, Transport and Road Research Laboratory devised the Sideways Force Coefficient Routine Investigation Machine (SCRIM). This is a lorry with a fifth wheel set at an angle to the direction of travel and the lateral force on this wheel is measured and recorded.
Table2: Methods for surface texture measurement (from Jayawickrama et al., 1996)
Figure 5. Sand Patch Method (ASTM E 965) (Source images: Hanson & Prowell)
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7.2.2 ROBOTEX ROBOTEX is another such advanced images processing equipment are capable of determining surface macrotexture. These devices come in the series of categories called non-contact pavement surface texture measurement devices.
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Figure 8. ROBOTEX and Output 3-D Texture Graph The one drawback to this method is that a pavement's surface macrotexture does not entirely determine its skid resistance. Therefore, correlation between surface macrotexture and skid resistance is often difficult to extrapolate into any general guidance. 7.2.3 Circular Texture Meter (CT Meter) CT Meter is another such device which is used to measure surface texture or macro texture, this method is based on the sand patch method (ASTM E965), while sand patch method results vary and dependent on the person who does the experiment CT Meter is a more efficient instrument. CT Meter uses a laser displacement sensor to measure the vertical texture of the pavement surface.
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8. Characteristics
8.1 Rapid Fall of Skid resistance
It was found that skid resistance falls rapidly after a road is opened to traffic but the rate of deterioration slows down, eventually settling to a constant value. This latter value is dependent on the surface texture, rock type and traffic volume.
Figure 10. (Smooth and Treaded Tire) Graph between skid number and speed
Figure 11. (Water depth effect) Graph between Skid Number and Speed A concrete pavement with a deep texture will retain skid resistance longer than pavement with a shallow texture. But at the same time more water will be in the groves and there might be
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chances of hydroplaning. It will also increase the noise made by cars when they travel on these groves.
8.5.2
9. Improvements
As the pavement surface skid resistance depends upon the surface texture, rock type, water draining ability of the pavement and the ability to resist long term wearing of the surface so to increase the pavement surface skid resistance there is a desperate need of application of a method that improve of the above mentioned characteristics of the pavement surface.
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Grooving of already worn or polished pavement has been found to be effective in increasing skid resistance. Parallel grooves are cut in the pavement with a band of diamond or abrasive saw blades. Some groove configurations used are 14 by 14 inch; or 18 by 18 inch, on 1-in ch centers. The method of grooving longitudinally that originated in California to reduce traffic accidents at critical areas has been found to be very effective. At seven locations, six of them on curved sections, a 96 percent reduction in accidents was reported after the longitudinal performance was evaluated over a period of one year.
Figure 12. Transverse grooving by the Cure/Texture Machine (left) and by Hand Methods 9.1.2 Brooms in concrete Pavements Brooms used to provide skid resistant textures usually are either steel bristle or coarse bristle made of various other materials. Better textures are produced by mounting the broom at an inclination away from the direction of texturing Rather than vertically. Again, timing is important. Best results have been obtained if brooming closely follows the paving operation. Brooming should be completed before the concrete is in such a condition of set that the surface would be torn or roughened by the operation. Stiff hand brooms should be available for use when other methods being employed do not provide the desired texture.
Figure 14. Texture curing machine TCM 950 Figure 13. Broom finish in transverse direction
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9.2.2
9.2.3
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4. Seal coating greatly increase the skid resistance of the pavement surface, in addition to rehabilitation cracked roads. Seal coatings like Polymer Modified Emulsion and TwoStage Binder Application are found to be very effective
3.
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Recommendations
4. There is a desperate need of development of a performance history for each particular pavement used by each highway agency. 5. The performance of the existing pavement designs should be monitored and new designs should be evaluated to ensure that only skid resistant pavement surfaces are used. 6. Information should be gathered as to the durability of a mix and the loss of skid resistance under varying traffic and weather conditions.
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References:
Yang h. Huang, Pavement analysis and design (2nd Edition) by, Chapter 9 Page 376
Oh, M., Ragland, R. and Chan, C. (2010) Evaluation of Traffic and Environment Effects on Skid Resistance and Safety Performance of Rubberized Open Graded Asphalt Concrete, Institute of Transportation studies, University of California, Berkley. (Available at Berkley.edu) J. E. PAINE (2008) Skid resistance of concrete pavements (Surface texturing, improvement of skid resistance and thus reduce highway accidents) Publication No. C690377, The Aberdeen Group Wanty, D., McLarin, M.W., Davies, R.B. & Cenek, P.D. (1995). Application of the Road Geometry Data Acquisition System (RGDAS). 7th World Conference on Transport Research. Transport Canada. Canadian Motor Vehicle Traffic Collision Statistics 2004 and Road Safety in Canada: An Overview. Transport Canada Website http://www.tc.gc.ca/ (Accessed on March 14, 2012). Alauddin, M. Ahamed, P.Eng., Ph.D, Incorporation of Surface Texture, Skid Resistance and Noise into PMS, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo.
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