1.
Introduction
Education plays a pivotal role in shaping the cognitive, emotional, and social development of
students. Among the various factors influencing academic success, motivation is widely
acknowledged as a core determinant of learning outcomes, engagement, and overall academic
performance. In the dynamic and competitive environment of higher education, understanding
what drives students to learn and persist in their academic endeavors has become more
important than ever.
Motivation is defined as “the hypothetical construct used to describe the internal and/or
external
Forces that produce the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior” (Vallerand &
Thill, 1993, p. 18). Motivation also known as an academic engagement which identify as the
most influential of all the factors that affect student performance and academic motivation has
been found positively associated with academic achievement, academic performance and ‘will
to learn’ (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark & Lowell 1953; Entwistle 1968; Frymier et al. 1975;
Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Woolfolk, 2004). These kinds of results emphasize that academic
motivation is one of the basic factors for academic performance. It is described as "The
cognitive, emotional, and behavioral indicators of students investment in and attachment to
education” (Tucker, Zayco, & Herman, 2002, p.477). Additionally, it is suggested that academic
motivation is the only factor that directly impacts academic achievement; all other factors affect
performance through their effect on motivation (Tucker, Zayco, & Herman, 2002). Another
factor is the student’s perception of themselves as being intrinsically or extrinsically motivated
to engage in learning activities within educational environments (Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001;
Elliot & Thrash, 2001). There has been a dialectical relation between people, as innately active
organisms, and the social environment according to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan,
1985).
In this theory, humans are assumed to be active, growth-oriented organisms that have an
innate desire for stimulation and learning from birth, which is either supported or discouraged
within their social environment (Deci & Ryan, 1985; 2000). Within the social environment
people attempt to satisfy their three basic needs. These three innate or fundamental
psychological needs are competence, autonomy and relatedness (Ryan, & Deci, 2000). In this
theory, at the end of the interaction between these needs and the environment three specific
types of motivation are differentiated. Firstly, intrinsic motivation; the drive to pursue an activity
simply for the pleasure or satisfaction derived from it, secondly, extrinsic motivation; pursuing
an activity out of a sense of obligation, or as a means to an end and thirdly, amotivation; the
absence of intent or drive to pursue an activity due to one’s failure to establish contingencies
between the activity and their behavior (Deci & Ryan, 1985; 2000). Additionally, Deci and Ryan
(1985) distinguished four types of extrinsic motivation: external regulation, introjected
regulation, identified regulation and integrated regulation. These four types of extrinsic
motivation show differences in the degree of self-determination that the individual associates
with the behavior. More internalized or more integrated behaviours produce a greater sense of
self-determination. Based on one of the propositions that intrinsic. Motivation may be driven by
specific, differentiated factors (Deci, 1975); three types of intrinsic motivation have been added
to this original theory by Vallerand and his colleagues (1992). Firstly, to know; the desire to
perform an activity for the enjoyment one receives while learning new things. Secondly, to
accomplish; the desire to perform an activity for the satisfaction one receives from
accomplishing or creating new things. Thirdly, to experience stimulation; the desire to perform
an activity for the experience one receives while experiencing sensory stimulation which may
reflect either intellectual or physical sensations (Vallerand et al. 1992). Thus, academic
motivation can be examined within eight subtitles. Vallerand and his co-workers (1992)
developed a scale which is measures seven subtitles of academic motivation on the bases of
Self-Determination Theory and named as Academic Motivation Scale (AMS). In this study,
academic motivation studied with AMS which is evaluates academic motivation as intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. According to Self-determination Theory environment has an important role
in motivation. For example: “at the end of interaction between needs and the environment tree
specific types of motivation are differentiated”, “social contexts either stifle or promote intrinsic
motivation” (Deci & Ryan; 2000).
Several conceptual perspectives have been proposed in order to better understand academic
motivation (see The Educational Psy-chologist, 1991, Issue 4, for a complete number devoted to
academic motivation). Onc useful perspective posits that behavior can be intrinsically
motivated, extrinsically motivated, or amotivated (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 1991). This theoretical
approach has generated a considerable amount of research and appears rather pertinent for
the field of education (see Deci and Ryan, 1985; Deci, Vallerand, Pelletier, and Ryan, 1991). This
approach is detailed below.
Intrinsic Motivation:
In general, intrinsic motivation (IM) refers to the fact of doing an activity for itself, and the
pleasure and satisfaction derived from participation (Deci, 1975; Deci and Ryan, 1985). An
example of IM is the student that goes to class because he or she finds it interesting and
satisfying to learn more about certain subjects. Deci and Ryan posit that IM stems from the
innate psychological needs of compe-tence and self-determination. Thus, activities that allow
individuals to experience such feelings will be engaged in again freely out of IM.
While most researchers posit the presence of a global IM construct, certain theorists (Deci,
1975) have proposed that IM might be differentiated into more specific motives. Unfortunately,
these authors have not indicated which types of IM follow from the more general IM construct.
More recently, a tripartite taxonomy of intrinsic motivation has been postulated (Vallerand,
Blais, Brière, and Pelletier, 1989). This taxonomy is based on the IM literature which reveals the
presence of three types of IM that have been researched on an independent basis. These three
types of IM can be identified as IM to know, to accomplish things, and to experience
stimulation. These types of IM are described more fully below.
Intrinsic motivation to know (IM-to know). This type of IM has a vast tradition in educational
research. It relates to several constructs such as exploration, curiosity, learning goals, intrinsic
intellectual-ity, and finally the IM to learn (e.g., Gottfried, 1985; Harter, 1981). To the above
perspectives which are more specific to the realm of education, may be added others that are
more global such as that of the epistemic need to know and understand, and that of the search
for meaning (see Vallerand et al., 1989). Thus, IM-to know can be defined as the fact of
performing an activity for the pleasure and the satisfaction that one experiences while learning,
exploring, or trying to understand something new. For instance, students are intrinsically
motivated to know when they read a book for the sheer pleasure that they experience while
learning something new.
Intrinsic motivation toward accomplishments (IM-to accomplish things). This second type of IM
has been studied in developmental psychology as well as in educational research under
concepts such as mastery motivation (Harter, 1981). In addition, other authors have postulated
that individuals interact with the environment in order to feel competent, and to create unique
accomplishments (Deci, 1975; Deci and Ryan, 1985, 1991). Finally, to the extent that individuals
focus on the process of achieving rather than on the outcome, achievement motivation can be
seen as being subsumed under the umbrella of IM-to accomplish things. Thus, IM-to accomplish
things can be defined as the fact of engaging in an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction
experienced when one attempts to accomplish or create something. Students who extend their
work beyond the requirements of a term paper in order to experience pleasure and satisfaction
while attempting to surpass themselves display IM toward accomplishments.
Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation (IM-to experience stimulation). Finally, IM-to
experience stimulation is operative when someone engages in an activity in order to experience
stimulating sensations (e.g., sensory pleasure, aesthetic experiences, as well as fun and
excitement) derived from one’s engagement in the activity. Re-search on the dynamic and
holistic sensation of flow, on feelings of excitement in IM, on aesthetic stimulating experiences,
and peak experiences is representative of this form of IM (e.g., Csikszentmi-halyi, 1975).
Students who go to class in order to experience the excitement of a stimulating class discussion,
or who read a book for the intense feelings of cognitive pleasure derived from passionate and
exciting passages represent examples of individuals who are intrinsically motivated to
experience stimulation in education.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Contrary to IM, extrinsic motivation (EM) pertains to a wide variety of behaviors which are
engaged in as a means to an end and not for their own sake (Deci, 1975). Recently, Deci, Ryan
and their colleagues (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 1991) have proposed that three types of EM can be
ordered along a self-determination continuum. From lower to higher levels of self-
determination, they are: external regulation, introjection, and identification’.
External regulation corresponds to EM as it generally appears in the literature. That is, behavior
is regulated through external means such as rewards and constraints. For instance, a student
might say: “I study the night before exams because my parents force me to.” With introjected
regulation, the individual begins to internalize the reasons for his or her actions. However, this
form of internalization, while internal to the person, is not truly self-determined since it is
limited to the internalization of past external contingencies. Thus, the individual might say: “I
study the night before exams because that’s what good students arc supposed to do.” To the
extent that the behavior becomes valued and judged important for the Individual, and
especially that it is perceived as chosen by oneself, then the internalization of extrinsic motives
becomes regulated through identification. The individual might say, for instance: “I’ve chosen to
study tonight because it is something important for me.”
Amotivation:
In addition to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, Deci and Ryan (1985) have recently posited that
a third type of motivational construct is important to consider in order to fully understand
human behavior. This concept is termed amotivation. Individuals are amotivated when they do
not perceive contingencies between outcomes and their own actions. They are neither
intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated. When amotivated individuals experience feelings of
incompetence and expectancies of uncontrollability. They perceive their behaviors as caused by
forces out of their own control. They feel undeceived, and start asking themselves why in the
world they go to school. Eventually they may stop participating in academic activities.
The psychological literature extensively categorizes the Impact of both intellectual and non-
intellectual factors on academic performance and achievement. Non-intellectual factors may be
more modifiable than their intelligent counterparts. Non-intellectual factors can be classified
into three fundamental areas: self-concept, which refers to self-esteem and self-efficacy,
stimulus, and emotional reactions. These non-intellectual aspects relate to the domain of study,
academic dedication, practical skills, and relationships, including relationships with family,
fellow students, and teachers (Boerchi et al., 2021).
Development of the Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-C 28)
Academic Motivation Scale (AMS-C 28) was developed from the French version of the Echelle de
motivation en Education (EME) (Vallerand, Blais, Briere, & Pelletier, 1989). It was subsequently
translated into English (Vallerand et al., 1992), It can be used to assess students’ motivation to
attend college and their motivation about education and learning.
The AMS is comprised of 28 items grouped into 7 subscales, with each subscale comprised of 4
items. Each item is scored on a Likert scale of 1-7. According to Vallerand et al. (1992), the
Subscales are
1. Intrinsic Motivation to know
2. Intrinsic Motivation towards the accomplishment
3. Intrinsic Motivation to experience stimulation
4. Extrinsic Motivation-Identified Regulation
5. Extrinsic Motivation-Introjected Regulation
6. Extrinsic Motivation-External Regulation
7. Amotivation
“Intrinsic motivation to know” refers to the internal desire for academic practice and the
Willingness to discover unfamiliar tasks (Vallerand et al., 1992, Vallerand et al., 1993). “Intrinsic
Motivation toward accomplishment” indicates the desire to reach a high level of ability and
Efficiency. “Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation” is the follow up of sensory activities
And irritation (Vallerand et al., 1992, Vallerand et al., 1993). By contrast, extrinsic motivation is
Described as behavior encouraged by external factors such as rewards (Lee, Cheung, & Che,
2005).
Extrinsic motivation refers to identified regulation, which is assessing the need to do activities in
Order to obtain individual value. Introjected regulation measures how much the students feel
guilt.
Extrinsic regulation refers to students participating in many events to gain reward or to avoid
mistreatment.
The AMS’s reliability evidence included (Alivernini & Lucidi, 2008) in Italy, (Karatas & Erden,
2012), in Turkey and (Barkoukis, 2008) in Greece. Validity evidence was due to Kevin, Bernard,
Cunningham, and Motoike (2001), Vallerand et al., (1992), and Vallerand et al., (1993).
It was used in Canada (Guay, Morin, Litalien, Valiois & Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand et al., 1992),
The U. S. (Fairchild, Horst, Finney, & Barron, 2005), and Turkey (Can, 2015).
General Purpose and Background
1. To measure academic motivation among college and university students in a structured,
reliable manner.
2. To assess multiple dimensions of motivation based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by
Deci and Ryan (1985).
3. To provide a standardized psychometric tool that evaluates the quality and type of students'
motivation.
4. To distinguish between intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivated behaviors, offering deeper insights
into academic functioning.
5. To bridge psychological theory and educational practice, enabling practical use of motivation
concepts in classrooms and institutions.
Educational Applications
1. To understand what drives students' academic behaviors, whether from internal interest or
external rewards.
2. To identify students who are at risk of academic disengagement or dropout (high
amotivation).
3. To help educators and counselors design targeted interventions, based on students’
motivational types.
4. To promote intrinsic motivation, which is linked to deep learning, creativity, and long-term
academic success.
5. To reduce dependence on external rewards, by encouraging autonomous learning.
6. To improve curriculum and instruction by aligning them with student motivation types.
7. To foster goal-setting, self-regulation, and perseverance among students.
8. To assess the impact of teaching strategies on student motivation levels.
9. To assist in educational planning, such as mentoring, guidance programs, and co-curricular
activities.
10. To help students develop a sense of personal value and purpose in their education.
