Electromagne,c Physics
Chapter 02:
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
• A magnetic field surrounds any moving electric charge and also
exists around a magnetic substance, such as a permanent
magnet.
• The magnetic field is historically represented by the symbol B in
some notations
• The direction of the magnetic field at any location is determined
by the direction in which a compass needle points.
• Magnetic fields are visualized using magnetic field lines, similar
to how electric fields are represented.
Single Bar Magnet: Opposite Poles (N-S) of Like Poles (N-N or S-S)
The field lines emerge Two Magnets: Field lines of Two Magnets: The
from the north pole connect from one magnet’s field lines repel each
(N) and curve toward north pole to the other’s south other, indicating a
the south pole (S). pole, showing attraction. repulsive force.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
The magnetic field B is a
vector field that exerts a
force on moving
charged particles. To
measure the magnetic
field at a point, we
observe the magnetic
force FB acting on a test
particle placed in the
field.
The magnetic force is
governed by:
• A negative charge experiences a force in the opposite direction to
that of a positive charge moving with the same velocity
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
The SI unit of magnetic
field is the newton per
coulomb-meter per
second, which is called
the tesla (T):
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Example 2.20 – An electron in an old-style
television picture tube moves toward the front of
the tube with a speed of 8.0×106 m/s along the
𝑥-axis. Surrounding the neck of the tube are
coils of wire that create a magnetic field of
magnitude 0.025 T, directed at an angle of 60o
to the 𝑥-axis and lying in the 𝑥𝑦-plane. Calculate
the magnetic force on the electron.
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Example 2.21 A proton is moving in a circular orbit of radius
14 cm in a uniform 0.35 T magnetic field perpendicular to the
velocity of the proton. Find the speed of the proton.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Example 2.22 In an experiment designed to measure the
magnitude of a uniform magnetic field, electrons are
accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 350 V
and then enter a uniform magnetic field that is perpendicular
to the velocity vector of the electrons. The electrons travel
along a curved path because of the magnetic force exerted
on them, and the radius of the path is measured to be 7.5
cm.
(A) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
(B) What is the angular speed of the electrons?
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Motion in Nonuniform Magnetic Fields:
• Charged particles moving in a nonuniform magnetic field
exhibit complex motion.
• In a magnetic field that is strong at the ends and weak in the
middle (e.g., a magnetic bottle), particles can oscillate between
two positions.
• Particles spiral along field lines, reverse direction at the ends,
and spiral back, effectively trapping them within the magnetic
bottle.
Magnetic Bottle and Plasma Confinement:
• Magnetic bottles are used to confine plasma (a gas of ions and
electrons).
• This confinement is crucial for controlling nuclear fusion, a
potential future energy source.
• A major issue is particle leakage due to collisions when too
many particles are trapped.
Van Allen Radiation Belts:
• These are doughnut-shaped regions around Earth containing
trapped charged particles (mostly electrons and protons).
• Particles spiral along Earth’s nonuniform magnetic field lines,
moving from pole to pole in seconds.
• The particles originate mainly from the Sun (cosmic rays) and
other celestial sources.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Van Allen Radiation Belts
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Velocity selector is A mass
a device used in spectrometer is a
experiments to allow device that
only particles with a separates ions
specific velocity to based on their
pass through without mass-to-charge
being deflected. It ratio (m/q). It is
uses perpendicular widely used to
electric and identify elements
magnetic fields to and isotopes by
filter particles based analyzing their
on their speeds. masses.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
J. J. Thomson’s Experiment (1897)
J. J. Thomson used a modified version of the velocity selector technique to measure
the charge-to-mass ratio for electrons.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
The first cyclotron, invented by E. O.
Lawrence and M. S. Livingston in 1934
A cyclotron is a device that accelerates charged particles to high speeds for use in nuclear
research and medical applications, such as producing radioactive isotopes for diagnosis and
treatment. It uses both electric and magnetic fields to accelerate ions inside two D-shaped
chambers (dees). A high-frequency alternating voltage between the dees accelerates the ions
each time they cross the gap between them. As the ions gain energy, they move in larger
semicircular paths due to the uniform magnetic field. The process repeats with each half-circle
trip, increasing the ion’s kinetic energy by qΔV at every crossing. The ions are ejected through
an exit slit when their path nearly matches the dee’s radius. The cyclotron’s efficiency relies on
the time for each semicircle (T/2) remaining constant, regardless of the ion’s speed or path
radius.
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
• A current-carrying wire
experiences a magnetic force
when placed in a magnetic field
because the current consists of
moving charges (electrons).
• Each moving charge
experiences a Lorentz force
(F=qv×B), and the total force
on the wire is the sum of
forces on all charges.
• The force is
transmitted to the
wire itself when the
charges collide with
the atoms in the
conductor.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Ø Total force on all charges in
the wire segment:
Ø The current in the wire is:
Ø Therefore
Ø For a curved or arbitrarily shaped wire, magnetic force
on a small segment 𝑑𝑠 is:
Ø The total magnetic force on a curved wire, we integrate
over the entire length of the wire:
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
• F1 = F3 = 0 (L // B)
• These sides are perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
F2 = F4 = IaB
• Total torque (sum of both sides):
• When the loop is tilted at an angle 𝜃 with
respect to the magnetic field:
• A convenient vector expression for the
torque exerted on a loop placed in a
Consider a rectangular uniform magnetic field B:
loop with sides a and b
carrying current I placed
in a uniform magnetic
field B • The product IA is defined to be the
magnetic dipole moment
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Quick Quiz: Rank the magnitudes of the torques acting on the
rectangular loops (a), (b), and (c)
Example 2.22 A rectangular coil of dimensions 5.40 cm x 8.50
cm consists of 25 turns of wire and carries a current of 15.0 mA.
A 0.350-T magnetic field is applied parallel to the plane of the
coil. What is the magnitude of the torque acting on the loop?
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
Example 2.23 Consider the loop of wire in Figure a. Imagine it is pivoted
along side ④, which is parallel to the z axis and fastened so that side ④
remains fixed and the rest of the loop hangs vertically but can rotate around
side ④ (Fig. b). The mass of the loop is 50.0 g, and the sides are of lengths
a=0.2 m and b=0.1 m. The loop carries a current of 3.50 A and is immersed in
a vertical uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.01 T in the +y direction (Fig.
c). What angle does the plane of the loop make with the vertical?
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagne,c Physics
•When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a perpendicular magnetic
field, charge carriers are deflected to one side.
•This deflection creates a charge imbalance, resulting in a potential
difference known as the Hall voltage.
•The Hall voltage is established when the magnetic force on the charge
carriers is balanced by the electric force from the accumulated charges.
•The sign of the Hall voltage indicates the type of charge carriers:
•Electrons (negative): The side becomes negatively charged.
•Positive charges: The side becomes positively charged.
•Applications of the Hall Effect:
•Magnetic field sensors.
•Non-contact current measurement.
The Hall Effect
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2.5 Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
The Biot–Savart Law is a mathematical expression that relates
the magnetic field produced by a steady electric current to the
magnitude, direction, length, and distance of the current element
from the point where the magnetic field is being calculated. It
serves as the magnetic equivalent of Coulomb’s Law in
electrostatics, providing a method to determine the magnetic field
B generated by a current distribution.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Direction of the Magnetic Field: The direction of the magnetic
field is determined using the right-hand rule: If you point the
thumb of your right hand in the direction of the current, your
fingers curl in the direction of the magnetic field lines.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Example 2.24 Consider a thin, straight wire of finite length carrying a
constant current I and placed along the x axis. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field at point P due to this current.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Example 2.25 Calculate the magnetic field at point O for the current-carrying
wire segment. The wire consists of two straight portions and a circular arc
of radius a, which subtends an angle θ.
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2.5 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
• Parallel conductors carrying currents
in the same direction attract each
other,
• Parallel conductors carrying currents
in opposite directions repel each
other.
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2.7 Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Example 2.26 Two infinitely long, parallel wires are lying on the ground a
distance a = 1 cm. A third wire, of length L = 10 m and mass 400 g, carries a
current of I1 = 100 A and is levitated above the first two wires, at a horizontal
position midway between them. The infinitely long wires carry equal currents I2
in the same direction, but in the direction opposite that in the levitated wire.
What current must the infinitely long wires carry so that the three wires form an
equilateral triangle?
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Ampère’s Law relates the integrated magnetic field around a
closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
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2.7 Magnetic Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
The Magnetic Field The Magnetic Field The Magnetic Field
Created by a Long Created by a Toroid: Created by a Solenoid:
Current-Carrying Wire:
where n = N/l is the
number of turns per unit
length.
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Gauss’s law in magne5sm states that: The total
magne=c flux through any closed surface is zero
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Magne5sm in Ma7er
Ø Electrons, like tiny charged particles, move around the nucleus
in circular orbits. This motion creates a small current, which in
turn generates a magnetic moment, similar to a tiny
electromagnet.
Ø Electrons also have an intrinsic spin, which contributes to their
overall magnetism. This means that every electron has two
sources of magnetism:
1.Orbital magnetic moment
2.Spin magnetic moment
Orbital magnetic
moment Ø In most materials, electrons pair up with opposite spins, orbiting
in the opposite direction canceling each other's magnetic
effects. This is why many substances are not magnetic.
Ø Protons and neutrons in the nucleus also have magnetic
moments, but they are much weaker than those of electrons,
making them usually negligible in determining an atom’s
magnetism.
So, the total magnetic moment of an atom is a combination of
orbital motion, spin, and nuclear contributions, with electron
Spin magnetic effects being the most significant.
moment
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
Ferromagnetism:
•Strong magnetism due to electron spins aligning in the same
direction.
•Found in materials like iron, cobalt, and nickel, gadolinium, and
dysprosium.
•Retains magnetism even after the external magnetic field is
removed.
Paramagnetism:
•Weak magnetism due to unpaired electrons aligning with an
external magnetic field.
•Found in materials like aluminum and platinum.
•Loses magnetism when the external field is removed.
Diamagnetism:
•Weak repulsion from a magnetic field due to induced currents
opposing the field.
•Found in materials like copper and bismuth.
•Present in all materials, but easily overshadowed by other forms
of magnetism if present.
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
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2.7 Magne,c Fields
Electromagnetic Physics
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
Faraday’s
experiment.
Faraday's law of induction (or simply Faraday's law) is a law of electromagnetism predicting
how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force
(emf). This phenomenon, known as electromagnetic induction, is the fundamental operating
principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electric motors, generators and
solenoids. Faraday’s law of induction:
Unit: V (Volt)
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
Example 2.27 A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square of
side d = 18 cm, and a uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
plane of the coil is turned on. If the field changes linearly from 0 to 0.50 T in
0.80 s, what is the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil while the field is
changing?
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
Mo5onal emf
•A conductor moving through a magnetic field
experiences a force on its electrons, causing them
to accumulate at one end.
•This separation of charges creates an internal
electric field that opposes further charge movement.
•At equilibrium, the electric force and magnetic force
balance each other.
•The result is a potential difference across the
conductor, known as the motional emf.
•The motional emf depends on:
•The magnetic field strength (B),
•The length of the conductor (ℓ),
•The velocity of the conductor (v).
•Final relationship:
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
• Faraday’s law indicates that the
induced emf and the change in
flux have opposite algebraic
signs. This feature has a very real
physical interpretation that has
come to be known as Lenz’s law.
• Lenz’s Law states that the
direction of the induced current in
a conductor is such that it
opposes the change in magnetic
flux that produced it. What is the direction of
• This is a consequence of the the induced current in
conservation of energy. the loop of wire? (a)
• When a magnetic field through a clockwise (b)
counterclockwise (c)
loop changes, the induced zero (d) impossible to
current creates its own magnetic determine
field to resist this change.
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
• Induced emf and Electric Fields can be
explained simply as follows:
• When a magnetic field changes over time,
it creates an electromotive force (emf) and
generates an induced electric field.
• This induced electric field can push charge
carriers in a conductor, causing a current to
flow.
• Unlike static electric fields (from charges), the
induced electric field is nonconservative: if
you move a charge around a closed loop, the
work done is not zero.
• Even if there is no conductor present, a
changing magnetic field can still create an
electric field in space.
• Faraday’s Law tells us that the faster the
magnetic field changes, the stronger the
induced electric field and emf.
• Faraday’s Law in integral form:
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
Electric generators are devices
that take in energy by work and
transfer it out by electrical
transmission.
• As a loop rotates in a magnetic
field, the magnetic flux through
the area enclosed by the loop
changes with time, and this
change induces an emf and a
current in the loop according to AC generator
Faraday’s law.
• This result shows that the emf
varies sinusoidally with time
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2.8 Faraday’s Law
Electromagnetic Physics
•A DC generator produces direct current,
used in older cars to charge batteries. DC generator
•Similar to an AC generator but uses a
commutator for connections.
•The commutator reverses contact every
half cycle, keeping the output voltage polarity
constant.
•Pulsating DC is smoothed in commercial
generators by using multiple coils and
commutators out of phase, when these
pulses are superimposed, the DC output is
almost free of fluctuations.
Ø A motor is a device into which
energy is transferred by
electrical transmission while
energy is transferred out by
work. A motor is essentially a
generator operating in
reverse.
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
The waves described in Chapters 1 are mechanical waves.
By definition, the propagation of mechanical disturbances—
such as sound waves, water waves, and waves on a string—
requires the presence of a medium. This chapter is concerned
with the properties of electromagnetic waves, which (unlike
mechanical waves) can propagate through empty space
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Maxwell’s equa5ons in free space
Ø There are four equations
that are regarded as the
basis of all electrical and
magnetic phenomena.
These equations,
developed by Maxwell,
are as fundamental to
electromagnetic
phenomena as Newton’s
laws are to mechanical
phenomena.
Ø The equations
summarize all the laws of
electricity and magnetism
and also predict
electromagnetic waves.
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Ø Gauss’s Law: Electric charges produce an electric
field, and the total electric flux through a closed
surface depends on the charge inside it.
Ø Gauss’s Law for Magnetism: There are no magnetic
monopoles; magnetic field lines always form closed
loops with no start or end.
Ø Faraday’s Law of Induction: A changing magnetic
field creates an electric field, inducing an emf in a
loop.
Ø Ampère-Maxwell Law: A magnetic field is generated
by an electric current or a changing electric field over
time.
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Plane Electromagne5c Waves Spherical Electromagne5c Waves
• If we define a ray as the line along which the wave travels, all rays for these waves
are parallel. This entire collection of waves is often called a plane wave.
• In comparison, a point source of radiation sends waves out radially in all directions.
A surface connecting points of equal phase for this situation is a sphere, so this
wave is called a spherical wave
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Step 1: An electromagnetic wave that travels in the x
direction. the electric field E is in the y direction and the
magnetic field B is in the z direction
Step 2
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Step 3
Faraday’s Law
Þ When the magnetic field B changes over time, it creates
a change in the electric field E along space.
(For simple visualization: As the magnetic field oscillates over time, it
"pulls" the electric field to vary along the space around it.)
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Step 4
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Step 5
Ampère-Maxwell’s Law
Þ When the electric field E changes over time, it creates a
change in the magnetic field B along space.
(For simple visualization: As the electric field oscillates over time, it
"pulls" the magnetic field to vary along the space around it.)
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagnetic Physics
Deriva=ve
simplest solution
Derivative
Both equation have the form of the linear wave equation
Speed of
electromagnetic
waves
This speed is precisely the same as the speed
of light in empty space, we are led to believe
(correctly) that light is an electromagnetic
wave
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
What is the phase difference
between the sinusoidal oscillations
of the electric and magnetic fields?
The ratio of the magnitude of the electric field to the magnitude
of the magnetic field in an electromagnetic wave equals the
speed of light
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
Example 2.27 A sinusoidal electromagnetic wave of frequency
40.0 MHz travels in free space in the x direction
(A) Determine the wavelength and period of the wave.
(B) At some point and at some instant, the electric field has its
maximum value of 750 N/C and is directed along the y axis.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field
at this position and time.
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
Energy Carried by Electromagne5c Waves
S represents power
per unit area
Ø The total instantaneous energy Ø The total average energy per
density u is equal to the sum of unit volume is:
the energy densities associated
with the electric and magnetic
fields:
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
Example 2.28 Estimate the maximum magnitudes of the
electric and magnetic fields of the light that is incident on this
page because of the visible light coming from your desk lamp (3
W, distance 0.3 m). Treat the lightbulb as a point source of
electromagnetic radiation that is 5% efficient at transforming
energy coming in by electrical transmission to energy leaving by
visible light.
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
Ø Electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum as well as
energy. As this momentum is absorbed by some surface,
pressure is exerted on the surface:
Ø When an electromagnetic wave is reflected from a surface, the
process can be understood as: The surface initially absorbs the
incoming wave, transferring an amount of momentum, The
surface then re-emits the wave in the opposite direction
(reflection), which again transfers the same amount of
momentum, therefore:
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
Example 2.29 When giving presentations, many people use a
laser pointer to direct the attention of the audience to information
on a screen. If a 3.0-mW pointer creates a spot on a screen that is
2.0 mm in diameter, determine the radiation pressure on a screen
that reflects 70% of the light that strikes it. The power 3.0 mW is a
time-averaged value.
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2.11 Electromagne,c Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
An antenna produces electromagnetic waves by accelerating electric
charges (usually electrons). As charges oscillate back and forth in the
antenna, they generate time-varying electric and magnetic fields. These
changing fields propagate away from the antenna as electromagnetic
waves, carrying energy through space.
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2.11 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagne,c Physics
The electromagnetic spectrum
includes all types of
electromagnetic waves, classified
by their wavelength or
frequency. It ranges from:
§ Radio waves (longest
wavelength, lowest
frequency),
§ Microwaves,
§ Infrared,
§ Visible light (ROYGBIV),
§ Ultraviolet,
§ X-rays,
§ Gamma rays (shortest
wavelength, highest
frequency).
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