Natuurkunde II

Jarne Verhaeghe: 2016-2017

27. Magnetic Field and Magnetic Forces

27.1. Magnetism
A magnet sets up a magnetic field in the space around it and a second body responds to that field

Earth : North pole is the MAGNETIC south pole and vice versa

Magnetic Poles versus Electric Charge

There is no evidence that a single pole magnet exist, it ALWAYS has a north and a south pole

Electric and magnetic interactions prove to be intimately connected

Magnetic Forces: Magnetic interactions are fundamentally interactions between moving charged
particles. These interactions are described by the vector magnetic field, denoted by 𝐵⃗ . A particle
with charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B experiences a force F that is perpendicular
to both v and B. The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (1 T = 1 N/A * m )

⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣 × 𝐵

27.2. Magnetic Field

Magnetic interactions:

1. A moving charge or a current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space (in addition
to its electric field)
2. The magnetic field exerts a force 𝐹 on any other moving charge or current that is present in
the field

Magnetic field is a vector field, symbol : ⃗𝑩

⃗ , the arrow direction is out of NORTH into SOUTH

Magnetic Forces on Moving Charges

4 Characteristics

1. Magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to magnitude of the charge

2. Magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to the strength of the field
3. Magnetic force depends on the particle’s velocity, charged particle at rest experience NO
magnetic force
4. The magnetic force doesn’t have the same direction as the magnetic field B, but is
perpendicular to ⃗𝑩
⃗ and velocity ⃗𝒗 , F is proportional to the component of ⃗𝒗 perpendicular to
the field (page 908)

⃗ = 𝒒𝒗
𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = |𝑞|𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜙 = |𝑞|𝑣𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑝 𝐵 𝐵
⃗ ×𝑩

Units of the magnetic field is in Tesla

𝑁
1 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑙𝑎 = 1 𝑇 = 1
𝐴∗𝑚
Measuring Magnetic Fields with Test Charges
Kathode buis , when you put a magnet close to it, it deflects But if the beam is parallel or antiparallel
to the field, then the angle is zero and the force is also zero

If a charged particle moves through an electric AND magnetic field, the total force is the vector sum

⃗ = 𝒒(𝑬
𝑭 ⃗ +𝒗 ⃗⃗ )
⃗ ×𝑩

Problem solving page 910

27.3. Magnetic Field Lines and Magnetic Flux

The magnetic field lines are drawn as such that at each point the tangent to the magnetic field vector
B is the line through this point. They are not lines of force

Vector conventions : ∙ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟, × 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛

Magnetic Flux and Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

The magnetic flux Φ𝐵 is defined likewise electric flux

We divide any surface into elements of area dA, for each element we determine 𝐵⊥ = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 the
component of B normal to the surface at the position of that element

⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴
The flux in Da : 𝑑Φ𝐵 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵

Total flux

𝚽𝑩 = ∫ 𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒅𝑨 = ∫ 𝑩⊥ 𝒅𝑨 = ∫ ⃗𝑩
⃗ ∙ 𝒅𝑨
⃗

Uniform plane it is easy : Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙

Units is in Weber
𝑁𝑚
1 𝑊𝑏 = 1 𝑇 ∗ 𝑚2 = 1
𝐴
Gauss’s law for magnetism (The total magnetic flux through any closed surface equals zero)

∮ ⃗𝑩
⃗ ∙ 𝒅𝑨
⃗ =𝟎

Magnetic field is sometimes called the magnetic flux density because : 𝐵 = 𝑑Φ𝐵 /𝑑𝐴⊥ so the
magnetic field is equal to flux per unit area (geval : 𝐵//𝑑𝐴)

Magnetic field lines and flux: A magnetic field can be represented graphically by magnetic field lines.
At each point a magnetic field line is tangent to the direction of B at that point. Where field lines are
close together, the field magnitude is large, and vice versa. Magnetic flux Φ𝐵 through an area is
defined in an analogous way to electric flux. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber ( 1 Wb = 1
Tm^2). The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero (Gauss’s law for magnetism). As a
result, magnetic field lines always close on themselves.

𝚽𝑩 = ∫ 𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓𝒅𝑨 = ∫ 𝑩⊥ 𝒅𝑨 = ∫ ⃗𝑩
⃗ ∙ 𝒅𝑨
⃗

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒅𝑨
∮𝑩 ⃗ =𝟎
 27.4. Motion of Charged Particles in a Magnetic Field
Motion of a charged particle under the action of a magnetic field alone is always motion with
constant speed so the kinetic energy of the particle is constant.

The particle undergoes a circular motion in a uniform (homogeen) magnetic field, if the motion is
perpendicular, with centripetal acceleration v^2/R and we get with Newton’s second law

𝑣2
𝐹 = |𝑞|𝑣𝐵 = 𝑚
𝑅
We get
𝒎𝒗
𝑹= = 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔
|𝒒|𝑩

The angular speed can be found from 𝑣 = 𝑅𝜔, the number of revolutions per unit time is 𝑓 = 𝜔/2𝜋
𝒗 |𝒒|𝑩
𝝎/𝟐𝝅 = = 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
𝑹 𝟐𝝅 𝒎 𝟐𝝅
If a particle starts moving, and it is not perpendicular to the field, the velocity component parallel to
the field remains constant, so the particle moves in a helix (page 915 fig 27.18) in an nonuniform field
see fig 27.19, it is “contained” and moves back and forth = magnetic bottle

Motion in a magnetic field: the magnetic force is always perpendicular to v; a particle moving under
the action of a magnetic field alone moves with constant speed. In a uniform field, a particle with
initial velocity perpendicular to the field moves in a circle with radius R that depends on the magnetic
field strength B and the particle mass m, speed v, and charge q.
Crossed electric and magnetic fields can be used as a velocity selector. The electric and magnetic
forces exactly cancel when v = E/B.
𝒎𝒗
𝑹= = 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔
|𝒒|𝑩

27.5. Applications of Motion of Charged Particles

Velocity for which there is no deflection is 𝒗 = 𝑬/𝑩

27.6. Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

We calculate the force on a particle in the conductor (or wire here) with the force expression, with n
= charge concentration, then we gent the magnetic force on a straight wire segment (current density
J = nq*drift velocity (vd))

⃗ , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙 × 𝐵
If it is not straight we can divide into infinitesimal pieces

⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵
Magnetic force on a conductor: A straight segment of a conductor carrying current I in a uniform
magnetic field B experiences a force F that is perpendicular to both B and the vector l, which points
in the direction of the current and has magnitude equal to the length of the segment. A similar
relationship gives the force 𝑑𝐹 on an infinitesimal current-carrying segment 𝑑𝑙 .

⃗ , 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙 × 𝐵
 ⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵

27.7. Force and Torque on a Current Loop

We consider a loop, with total force =0 but there can be a torque which is not zero

The net force on a current loop in a uniform magnetic field is zero. However, the net torque is not
in general equal to zero.

We get the torque 𝜏

𝜏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 , with a Area of loop and ϕ angle between normal to loop plane and field direction
𝜇 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐝𝐢𝐩𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭

Magnetic Torque: Vector Form

Right hand rule of the direction of the current determines the magnetic dipole moment vector. (page
925 fig. 27.32)

Torque is greatest when 𝜇 is perpendicular to B and zero when they are parallel, so in stable
equilibrium they are parallel

The torque vector is the vectorial product of these 2

⃗ =𝝁
𝝉 ⃗⃗
⃗ ×𝑩

Potential Energy for a Magnetic Dipole

When a magnetic dipole changers orientation in a magnetic field, the field does work on it so the
potential energy is given by

⃗⃗ = −𝝁𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓
⃗ ∙𝑩
𝑼 = −𝝁

Magnetic Torque : Loops and Coils

We can generalize this whole thought process even for coils, it’s the same right hand rule and vector
placement if the current goes in the same direction, only each circle in the coil amplifies the dipole,
so we must multiply by the number of circles/turns present N

𝝉 = 𝑵𝑰𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓 , 𝜙 the angle between the axis of the solenoid and direction of the field, A area

Magnetic Dipole in a Nonuniform Magnetic Field

See figure 27.36 page 928!

Magnetic Dipoles and How Magnets Work

Read page 928+929

Magnetic torque: A current loop with area A and current I in an uniform magnetic field B experiences
no net magnetic force, but does experience a magnetic torque of magnitude 𝜏. The vector torque 𝜏
can be expressed in terms of the magnetic moment vector µ=IA (A vector) of the loop, as can the
potential energy U of a magnetic moment in a magnetic field B. The magnetic moment of a loop
depends only on the current and the area; it is independent of the shape of the loop. (Right Hand
Rule)

𝜏 = 𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 , with a Area of loop and ϕ angle between normal to loop plane and field direction
𝜇 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐌𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐝𝐢𝐩𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭

⃗ =𝝁
𝝉 ⃗⃗
⃗ ×𝑩
 ⃗⃗ = −𝝁𝑩𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓
⃗ ∙𝑩
𝑼 = −𝝁

27.8. The Direct-Current Motor

Read, very interesting page 929+930

Power for Electric Motors

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝜀 + 𝐼𝑟

27.9. The Hall Effect

The hall effect is the effect which occurs if you put a current and an electric field on a metal plate, it
doesn’t matter if the charges are positive or not, but due to the magnetic forces (right hand rule,
negative goes against drift velocity, positive charge in the direction of the drift velocity) both forces
point upwards. So these charges start moving there and are “piling up” eventually creating an
electrostatic field which counteracts this magnetic force. If this electric field = the electric force than
this called the Hall voltage or Hall emf
𝑱𝒙 𝑩𝒚
𝒏𝒒 = − (𝑱 = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚)
𝑬𝒛
The Hall effect: The Hall effect is a potential difference perpendicular to the direction of current in a
conductor, when the conductor is placed in a magnetic field. The Hall potential is determined by the
requirement that the associated electric field must just balance the magnetic force on a moving
charge. Hall-effect measurements can be used to determine the sign of charge carriers and their
concentration n.

28. Sources of Magnetic Field

28.1. Magnetic Field of a Moving Charge
Source point = location of moving charge

Field point = where we want to calculate the field

𝑻𝒎
𝝁𝟎 = 𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭 = 𝟒𝛑 ∗ 𝟏𝟎−𝟕
𝑨
Moving Charge : Vector Magnetic Field
Magnetic field due to a point charge with constant velocity

⃗ × 𝒓̂
𝝁𝟎 𝒒𝒗
⃗⃗ =
𝑩 , 𝑟̂ = eenheidsvector van sourcepoint naar fieldpoint, |𝑟̂ | = 1
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Otherwise, in magnitude
𝝁𝟎 𝒒𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓
𝑩= , 𝜙 = hoek tussen snelheid en lijn sourcepoint − field point
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Moving Charge: Magnetic Field Lines
Point charge in motion produces an electric field, with field lines that radiate outward from a positive
charge, the magnetic field lines are completely different. The field lines are radial, or circles around
the moving charge, perpendicular to the plane of motion (right hand rule).
Magnetic field of a moving charge: The magnetic field B created by a charge q moving with velocity v
depends on the distance r from the source point (location of q) to the field point (where B is
measured). The B field is perpendicular to 𝑣⃗⃗⃗ and to 𝑟̂ , the unit vector directed from the source point
to the field point. The principle of superposition of magnetic fields states that the total B field
produced by several moving charges is the vector sum of the fields of produced by the individual
charges.

28.2. Magnetic Field of a Current Element

There is a principle of superposition of magnetic fields

The total magnetic field caused by several moving charges is the vector sum of the fields caused by
the individual charges

We can use this principle to calculate magnetic field produced by a current in a conductor

Current element: Vector Magnetic Field

𝝁𝟎 𝑰𝒅𝒍 × 𝒓̂ 𝝁 𝑰𝒅𝒍 × 𝒓̂
⃗⃗ =
𝒅𝑩 ⃗ = 𝟎∫
𝒂𝒏𝒅 ⃗𝑩 = 𝑙𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝟒𝝅 𝒓 𝟐 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
Problem solving strategy 28.1 page 949

Magnetic field of a current-carrying conductor: The law of Biot and Savart gives the magnetic field
𝑑𝐵⃗ created by an element 𝑑𝑙 of a conductor carrying current I. The field dB is perpendicular to both
dl and 𝑟̂ , the unit vector from the element to the field point. The B field created by a finite current-
carrying conductor is the integral of dB over the length of the conductor.

28.3. Magnetic Field of a Straight Current-Carrying Conductor

We calculate this with the formula given in 28.2 and get

Magnetic field near a long, straight, current-carrying conductor

𝝁𝟎 𝑰
𝑩= , 𝒓 = 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
𝟐𝝅𝒓
Magnetic field of long, straight current-carrying conductor: The magnetic field B at a distance r from
a long, straight conductor carrying a current I has a magnitude that is inversely proportional to r. The
magnetic field lines are circles coaxial with the wire, with directions given by the right-hand rule.

28.4. Force between Parallel Conductors

Figure page 953

The previous formula helps us, same with the formula of 27 (in 1st wire) : 𝐹 = 𝐼′𝑙 ×
⃗ , but they are perpendicular, F = I′LB , substituting B (previous formula) in this we get
𝐵

′
𝜇0 𝐼𝐼 ′ 𝐿
𝐹 = 𝐼 𝐿𝐵 =
2𝜋𝑟
And the force per unit length F/L is
𝐹 𝜇0 𝐼𝐼 ′
=
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟
By the right hand rule, we can find that the two parallel conductors carrying current in the same
direction attract each other, and opposite directions repel each other
Magnetic Forces and Defining the Ampere
Definition:

One ampere is that unvarying current that, if present in each of two parallel conductors of infinite
length and one meter apart in empty space, causes each conductor to experience a force of exactly

Magnetic force between current-carrying conductors: Two long, parallel, current-carrying

conductors attract if the currents are in the same direction and repel if the currents are in opposite
directions. The magnetic force per unit length between the conductors depends on their currents I
and I’ and separation r. The definition of the ampere is based on this relationship.

28.5. Magnetic Field of a Circular Loop

We use exactly the same method, page 954

Magnetic field on axis of a circular current-carrying loop (loop in yz plane)

𝜇0 𝐼𝑎2
𝐵𝑥 = , 𝑎 = radius of loop, 𝑥 = distance from loop
2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2
Direction is again with right hand rule, for multiple coils just multiply by the amount of coils N

Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Coil

Maximum value of magnetic field is at the center of the coils of N circular current-carrying loops
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
𝐵𝑥 =
2𝑎
Magnetic field of a current loop: The law of Biot and Savart allows us to calculate the magnetic field
produced along the axis of a circular conducting loop of radius a carrying current I. The field depends
on the distance x along the axis from the center of the loop to the field point. If there are N loops,
the field is multiplied by N. at the center of the loop, x=0.

28.6. Ampere’s Law

Gauss’s law for magnetic fields is not a relationship between magnetic fields and current
distributions, it states that the flux of the magnetic field through any close surface is always zero,
whether or not if there are current involved.

Ampere’s Law for a Long, Straight Conductor

Ampere’s Law is actually a line integral of the magnetic field around a closed path

Calculation page 958

Giving :

⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
∮𝐵

Ampere’s Law : General Statement

⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
∮𝐵

Ampere’s law: Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B around any closed path equals µ0 times
the net current through the area enclosed by the path. The positive sense of current is determined
by a right-hand rule.
 28.7. Applications of Ampere’s Law
Exercises page 961+962+963, page 970 all formula

28.8. Magnetic Materials

The Bohr Magneton
Magnetized means that the magnetic fields the atoms of a certain material orientate themselves in
the magnetic field and each atom can contribute to that field.

Magnetic moment 𝜇 = 𝐼𝐴
𝑒 𝑒𝑣
Current 𝐼 = 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑟 , 𝑇 period (substitute)

Paramagnetism
In some cases the atom has a net magnetic moment and when placed in a magnetic field, the field
exerts a torque on each magnetic moment (tau = mu x b)

We call this the magnetization of the material

𝜇𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
⃗⃗ =
𝑀 , magnetic moment per unit volume
𝑉
So the total magnetic field is

⃗ =𝐵
𝐵 ⃗ 0 + 𝜇0 𝑀
⃗⃗ , 𝐵0 is caused by the current in the conductor

This is paramagnetic, this means that the magnetic field at any point in such a material is greater by a
dimensionless factor 𝐾𝑚 called relative permeability typically ranges from 1.00001 to 1.003

𝜇 = 𝐾𝑚 𝜇0
The magnetic susceptibility is the amount by which it differs from unity

𝜒𝑚 = 𝐾𝑚 − 1
Curie’s law
𝐵
𝑀=𝐶 , 𝐶 constant called the Curie constant
𝑇
Diamagnetism
Induced magnetic fields, opposite to the external field this is called diamagnetic, thus giving a
negative field NOT contributing

Ferromagnetism
See page 967

Hystereseverliezen: is de geleverde arbeid per volume-eenheid bij het doorlopen van een
hystereselus

Magnetic materials: When magnetic materials are present, the magnetization of the material causes
an additional contribution to B. For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, µ0 is replaced in
magnetic-field expressions by 𝜇 = 𝐾𝑚 𝜇0 where µ is the permeability of the material and 𝐾𝑚 is its
relative permeability. The magnetic susceptibility 𝜒𝑚 = 𝐾𝑚 − 1. Magnetic susceptibilies for
paramagnetic materials are small positive quantities; those for diamagnetic materials are small
negative quantities. For ferromagnetic materials Km is much larger than 1 and is not constant. Some
ferromagnetic materials are permanent magnets, retaining their magnetization even after the
external magnetic field is removed.

29. Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction tells us that a time-varying magnetic field can act as a source of electric
field

29.1. Induction Experiments

A coil of wire is connected to a galvanometer, when the nearby magnet is stationary the meter
shows no current this is because there is no emf in the circuit. But when we move toward or away
with the magnet to the coil, we see current, but only when it is moving.

This phenomena is called induced current corresponding with induced emf

The same is possible with a second coil but that coil has a current moving through it so this creates
an magnetic field. (even with changing the current in the second coil while keeping the coil
stationary)

- No current in electromagnet, so B=0 , there is no current induced

- When turned on, there is a momentary current induced by the magnetic field
- B levels off at a steady value and the current drops to zero

The common element is the changing magnetic flux, in each case the flux changes because of the
magnetic field change (time ) or the moving coil through a Nonuniform magnetic field

The emf each time is proportional to the rate of change of the flux

Direction depends on whether the flux is increasing or decreasing, flux constant → induced emf = 0

29.2. Faraday’s Law

Common element is the changing magnetic flux through a circuit, we review the infinitesimal flux
definition

Faraday’s law of induction

𝑑Φ𝐵
𝜀 = −𝑁 , induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative times loops
𝑑𝑡
of the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop

Direction of Induced emf

Previous equation with

- Define positive direction for vector area 𝐴

- From directions of 𝐴 and magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ , determine sign of the flux and its rate of change
(page 983, figure 29.6)
- Determine sign of induced emf or current, flux is increasing than the induced emf/current is
negative, and vice versa
- Use right hand to determine direction of induced emf or current : Curl fingers of right hand
around 𝐴 vector, with your right thumb in direction of 𝐴. If positive it is in the direction of
the curled fingers and negative the opposite direction

Problem solving strategy 29.1 page 985 + examples 986-988

Generators as Energy Convertors
Page 988, read

Faraday’s law: Faraday’s law states that the induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the
time rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop. This relationship is valid whether the flux
change is caused by a changing magnetic field, motion of the loop or both.

29.3. Lenz’s Law

Alternative method for determining the direction of an induced current or emf, it is not an
independent principle; It can be derive from Faraday’s law. States

The direction of any magnetic induction effect is such as to oppose the cause of the effect

This cause may be changing flux through a stationary circuit due to a varying magnetic field, changing
flux due to motion of conductors that make up circuit or any combination

So the induced current opposed the change in flux not the flux

Lenz’s Law and the Response to Flux Changes

Lenz’s law only gives the direction; the magnitude depends on the resistance of the circuit, so the
less the circuit resistance, the greater the induced current and thus the more difficult it is to change
the flux.

Lenz’s law: Lenz’s law states that an induced current or emf always tends to oppose or cancel out the
change that caused it. Lenz’s law can be derived from Faraday’s law and is often easier to use.

29.4. Motional Electromotive Force

A conducting rod moves in an uniform magnetic field, this creates a force on the charges and they
respectively move to their side (up and down) this creates and induced electric field which
counteracts. Eventually these are in equilibrium this means : qE=qvB

The magnitude of the potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 (𝑎 > 𝑏) this is equal to the electric field
magnitude E multiplied by the length L of the rod. So we get

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐸𝐿 = 𝑣𝐵𝐿
Suppose the rod now slides along a stationary U-shaped conductor forming a complete circuit. No
magnetic forces acts on the charges in the stationary U-shaped conductor, but the charges of the
rod redistributes itself along that conductor and creates an electric field which causes a current. This
moving rod now became a source of emf

Within it, charge moves from lower to higher potential and in remainder of the circuit it moves from
high to low.

This emf is called motional electromotive force

ℰ = 𝑣𝐵𝐿, conductor speed (perp. on magnetic field)

times conductor length times magnitude of uniform magnetic field
This corresponds to a force per unit charge of magnitude vB acting on a distance L. The induced
current I is given by 𝑣𝐵𝐿 = 𝐼𝑅 (IV law)

Motional emf: if a conductor moves in a magnetic field, a motional emf is induced.

Motional emf : General Form
We of course can generalize this for a conductor with any shape, in a magnetic field without it being
uniform.

⃗ ) ∙ 𝑑𝑙
𝑑ℰ = (𝑣 × 𝐵

So

⃗ ) ∙ 𝑑𝑙
ℰ = ∮(𝑣 × 𝐵

29.5. Induced Electric Fields

An induced electric field is caused by the changing magnetic flux, and are very different from the
electric fields caused by charges. This force is not conservative so the line integral of 𝐸⃗ around a
closed path is not zero, which represents the work done by the induced field per unit charge is equal
to the induced emf
𝑑Φ𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = ℰ = −
𝑑𝑡
Induced electric fields: When an emf is induced by a changing magnetic flux through a stationary
conductor, there is an induced electric field E of nonelectrostatic origin. This field is nonconservative
and cannot be associated with a potential.

29.6. Eddy Currents

These are induced currents that circulate throughout the volume of a material and not per se a
conductor. Page 996

29.7. Displacement Current and Maxwell’s Equations

Also varying electric fields can give rise to a magnetic field, which is important to the existence of
certain waves

Generalizing Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s law is actually incomplete, because there is a contradiction which can arise. To help this we
invent a fictitious displacement current 𝑖𝐷
𝑑Φ𝐸
𝑖𝐷 = 𝜖
dt
And we generalize ampere’s law

⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝐷 )
∮𝐵

With the displacement current there also is a density

𝑑𝐸
𝑗𝐷 = 𝜖
𝑑𝑡
Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetism
These exists out of four equations. Stated for the simplest form, so for the case in which we have
charges and currents in otherwise empty space

The first one is simply Gauss’s law for electric fields

 𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴 =
𝜖0
Second one is the analogous for magnetic fields, which means that there are no magnetic monopoles

⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝐴 = 0
∮𝐵

The third and fourth involve a line integral of E or B around a closed path Faraday’s law states that a
changing magnetic flux acts as a source of electric field
𝑑Φ𝐵
∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = −
𝑑𝑡
Final one is Ampere’s law including the displacement current, it states that both a conduction current
and a changing electric flux act as sources of magnetic field
𝑑Φ𝐸
⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (𝑖𝐶 + 𝜖0
∮𝐵 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙
In general the total electric field at a point in space can be the superposition of an electrostatic
electric field 𝐸⃗𝑐 caused by a distribution of charges at rest and a magnetically induced,
nonelectrostatic electric field 𝐸⃗𝑛 that is

𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗𝑐 +𝐸⃗𝑛

𝐸⃗𝑐 is always conservative, so this does not contribute to the integral in Faraday’s law, so we can take
the sum to be the total electric field including both parts (charges and magnetically induced),
similarly the nonconservative part 𝐸⃗𝑛 doesn’t contribute to the Gauss’s law integral.

Symmetry in Maxwell’s Equations

Page 1000

𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸⃗ + 𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗)

Displacement current and Maxwell’s equations: A timevarying electric field generates displacement
current 𝑖𝐷 which acts as a source of magnetic field in exactly the same way as conduction current.
The relationships between electric and magnetic fields and their sources can be stated compactly in
four equations, called Maxwell’s equations. Together they form a complete basis for the relationship
of E and B fields to their sources.

29.8. Superconductivity
Nice to read, page 1002

30. Inductance
A changing current in a coil induces an emf in an adjacent coil, this coupling is called mutual
inductance. A changing current in a coil also induces an emf in that same coil = inductor and self-
inductance of the coil.

30.1. Mutual Inductance

Steady currents → forces on coupled coils

Changing current → emf

Consider 2 neighbouring coils, current in coil 1 creates magnetic field → flux in second coil, if this
current is changing the flux in coil 2 changes as well and induces an current. (notation: lower letters
for in time changing)

Faradays law gives:

𝑑Φ𝐵2
ℰ2 = −𝑁2 , when i changes the flux changes so proportional
𝑑𝑡
We get a proportionality constant M for mutual inductance (proportional to the flux and the current)
(this is flux is flux through coil x, so A*By!! Not same)
𝑁2 Φ𝐵2 𝑁1 Φ𝐵1 𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2 1𝑊𝑏 1𝑉𝑠 1𝐽
=𝑀= or ℰ2 = −𝑀 / ℰ1 = −𝑀 , in 1𝐻 = = = 2 = 1Ωs
𝑖1 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
This means a change in the current through coil 1 induces with a constant a emf in coil 2

Mutual inductance: When a changing current 𝑖1 in one circuit causes a changing magnetic flux in a
second circuit, and emf ℇ2 is induced in the second circuit. Likewise, a changing current 𝑖2 in the
second circuit induces an emf ℇ1 in the first circuit. If the circuits are coils of wire with N1 and N2
turns, the mutual inductance M can be expressed in terms of the average flux Φ𝐵2 through each turn
of coil 2 caused by the current i1 in coil 1, or in terms of the average flux Φ𝐵1 through each turn of
coil 1 caused by the current i2 in coil 2. The SI unit of mutual inductance is the henry, H.

30.2. Self-Inductance and Inductors

Imagine a coil with a current i, this creates a magnetic field and thus a flux inside the same coil also. If
this current changes it can induce itself thus creates another emf, this phenomenon is called self-
inductance L or simply inductance. This emf tries to “get rid of” the change in current, which gives
rise to have more “power” to change this current. This can happen in each closed circuit! Only in a
coil is this much higher.
NΦ𝐵 𝑑𝑖
𝐿= also in Henry, and ℰ = −𝐿
𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Minus sign is to oppose the change (Lenz’s law)

Inductors As Circuit Elements

They function as an element to oppose any variations in the current through the circuit, in an direct-
current it can help to maintain the steady voltage, even if the applied emf can change. In an ac-circuit
it can help to suppress variations of current which are more rapidly than desired (example lightning
strike).

In a circuit this formula can help

𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Applications of Inductors
Page 1020 reading

Self-Inductance: A changing current I in any circuit causes a self-induced emf. The inductance (or
self-inductance) L depends on the geometry of the circuit and the material surrounding it. The
inductance of a coil of N turns is related to the average flux Φ𝐵 through each turn caused by the
current i in in the coil. An inductor is a circuit device, usually including a coil of wire, intended to have
substantial inductance.

30.3. Magnetic-Field Energy

Energy Stored in an Inductor
It is possible to calculate the total energy input U needed to establish a final current I in an inductor if
the initial current was zero.
𝑑𝑖
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑖 = 𝐿𝑖 and 𝑑𝑈 = 𝐿𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡
With the total energy stored in an inductor
𝐼
1 𝑄2
𝑈 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿𝐼 2 , I final current = for capacitor
0 2 2𝐶

So when there is no current the energy is 0 and when there is I current there is ½LI^2 energy

Magnetic Energy Density

The energy in an inductor is actually stored in its magnetic field.

Assume the ideal toroidal solenoid. This is so we can assume that cross-sectional area A is so small
that the magnetic field is uniform and the volume V is equal to V=2Pi rA

We get eventually the magnetic energy density in vacuum and in a material

𝐵2
𝑢= mu zero is the magnetic constant
2𝜇0
𝜇 = 𝐾𝑚 𝜇0 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 then just substitute muzero with mu)
This is the magnetic analogue of the energy per unit volume

Magnetic-field energy: An inductor with inductance L carrying current I has energy U associated with
the inductor’s magnetic field. The magnetic energy density u (energy per unit volume) is proportional
to the square of the magnetic-field magnitude.

30.4. The R-L Circuit

See cursus Elektrische Schakelingen en Netwerken

In a circuit containing a resistor R, an inductor L, and a source of emf, the growth and decay of
current are exponential. The time constant tau is the time required for the current to approach
within a fraction 1/e of its final value.
ℰ 𝑅
−( )𝑡 𝑑𝑖 ℰ −(𝑅)𝑡
𝑖= (1 − 𝑒 𝐿 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ = 𝑒 𝐿
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝐿
𝜏=
𝑅
30.5. The L-C Circuit
A circuit that contains inductance and capacitance undergoes electrical oscillations with an angular
frequency that depends on the inductance and the capacitance. This is analogous to a mechanical
harmonic oscillator, with inductance analogous to mass m, the reciprocal of capacitance 1/C to force
constant k, charge q to displacement x, and current I to velocity 𝑣𝑥 page 1029!!!!!
 1
𝜔=√
𝐿𝐶

30.6. The L-R-C Series Circuit

A circuit that contains inductance, resistance, and capacitance undergoes damped oscillations for
sufficiently small resistance. The frequency of damped oscillations depends on the values of
inductance, resistance and capacitance. As the resistance increases, the damping increases if R is
greater than a certain value the behaviour becomes overdamped and no longer oscillates

1 𝑅2
𝜔′ = √ − 2
𝐿𝐶 4𝐿

31. Alternating Current

31.1. Phasors and Alternating Current
To supply alternating current, a source of alternating emf is needed, an example is a coil of wire
rotating with constant angular velocity in a magnetic field. This develops a sinusoidal alternating emf
and is the prototype of the commercial AC generator or alternator

A sinusoidal voltage might be

𝑣 = 𝑉 cos 𝜔𝑡 , 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
A sinusoidal alternating current

𝑖 = 𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡

Phasor Diagrams
To represent these alternating values we will use a rotating vector diagram. In these the
instantaneous value of a quantity that varies sinusoidally with time is represented by the projection
onto the horizontal axis of a vector with length equal to the amplitude. Rotates counter clockwise
and are called phasors.

Rectified Alternating Current

To measure alternating current we can use diodes, which is a device that conducts better in one
direction than in the other; an ideal diode has zero resistance for one direction of current and infinite
resistance for the other. Making it possible to use a currentmeasurer or galvanometer, where current
flows only in one direction and pulsates which the average meter is not zero.
2
Which the rectified average value of a sinusoidal current : 𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝜋 𝐼 = 0.637𝐼

Root-Mean-Square Values
A root-mean-square or rms value is a more useful way to describe a quantity that can be either
positive or negative. We square the instantaneous current I, and that’s the average value, and finally
take the square root of that average.
𝐼
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝑉
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
Phasors and alternating current: An alternator or ac source produces an emf that varies sinusoidally
with time. A sinusoidal voltage or current can be represented by a phasor, a vector that rotates
counter clockwise with constant angular velocity 𝜔 equal to the angular frequency of the sinusoidal
quantity. Its projection on the horizontal axis at any instant represents the instantaneous value of the
quantity. For a sinusoidal current, the rectified average and rms currents are proportional to the
current amplitude I. Similarly for V.

Voltage, current, and phase angle: In general, the instantaneous voltage 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
between two points in an ac circuit is not in phase with the instantaneous current passing through
those points. The quantity 𝜙 is called the phase angle of the voltage relative to the current.

31.2. Resistance and Reactance

Resistor in an ac Circuit
The maximum value of the voltage 𝑣𝑅 is 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅

The current and voltage are always in phase with each other!

Inductor in an ac Circuit
Put a inductor in the ac circuit, the voltage is different from the ends of the inductor due to its
selfinducing factor, giving
𝑑𝑖 𝑑
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 = 𝐿 (𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡) = −𝐼𝜔𝐿 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔𝐿 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 90°)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So the voltage is the rate of change of the current and the voltage and current are out of phase by
90°, since the voltage peaks occur a quarter-cycle earlier than the current peaks, we say that the
voltage leads the current by 90°.

The “extra” in the cos is the phase angle 𝝓

Inductor voltage and inductive reactance X

𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿

Capacitor in an ac Circuit
We put a capacitor in the circuit and i = dq/dt
𝐼
𝑞= sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑞𝑣𝐶
𝜔
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑣𝐶 1
𝑖= =𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝐶 = cos(𝜔𝑡 − 90°)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜔𝐶
The voltage amplitude and capacitive reactance
𝐼
𝑉𝐶 = = 𝐼𝑋𝐶
𝜔𝐶
Resistance and Reactance: The voltage across a resistor R is in phase with the current. The voltage
across an inductor L lead the current by 90° (𝜙 = +90°) while the voltage across a capacitor C lags
the current by 90° (𝜙 = −90°). The voltage amplitude across each type of device is proportional to
the current amplitude I.
 31.3. The L-R-C Series Circuit
See ESN

The impedance Z of an ac circuit is the ratio of the voltage amplitude acros the circuit to the current
amplitude in the circuit (V is vector sum of all reactances and resistance)

𝑉 = 𝐼√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = 𝐼𝑍

The Meaning of Impedance and Phase Angle

Alternating current tends to follow the path of lowest impedance.

1 2
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = √𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶

Thus for a given voltage the amplitude I is dependent on the frequency

1
(𝜔𝐿 − 𝜔𝐶 )
tan 𝜙 =
𝑅
Impedance and the L-R-C series circuit: In a general ac circuit, the voltage and current amplitudes
are related by the circuit impedance Z. In an L-R-C series circuit, the values of L,R,C, and the angular
frequency 𝜔 determine the impedance and the phase angle 𝜙 of the voltage relative to the current.

31.4. Power In Alternating-Current Circuits

The instantaneous power p is

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖

Power in a Resistor
Assume i and v in phase, so p is always positive, thus energy is supplied to the resister.
2
1 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅=
2 𝑅
Power in an Inductor
The power here is negative half of its cycle, so when p is positive, energy is being supplied to set up
its magnetic field, when p is negative, the field collapses and inductor is returning energy to the
source, so the net energy over one cycle is zero.

Power in a Capacitor
The voltage lags the current by 90° or the current leads the voltage by 90°

Average power is again zero, energy is supplied to charge the capacitor and is returned when the
capacitor discharges.

Power in a General ac Circuit

In any ac circuit, the voltage v across the entire circuit has some phase angle with respect to the
current i

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = [𝑉 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)][𝐼 cos 𝜔𝑡]

Giving the overall formula of the average power in to a general ac circuit
 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝐼 cos 𝜙 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜙 the factor cos 𝜙 is the power factor
2
Power in ac circuits: The average power input 𝑃𝑎𝑣 to an ac circuit depends on the voltage and current
amplitudes (or, equivalently, their rms values) and the phase angle 𝜙 of the voltage relative to the
current. The quantity cos(𝜙) is called the power factor.

31.5. Resonance in Alternating-Current Circuits

A radio signal of any given frequency produces a current of the same frequency in the receiver
circuit, but the amplitude of the current is greatest if the signal frequency equals the particular
frequency to which the receiver of the circuit is tuned.

Circuit Behaviour at Resonance

As we vary the angular frequency the current amplitude I=V/Z varies, maximum value of I occurs at
the frequency at which the impedance is minimum. This is called resonance and the angular
frequency at which this happens is the resonance angular frequency
1
𝜔0 = is the natural angular frequency of oscillation of an LC circuit
√𝐿𝐶
Resonance in ac circuits: In an L-R-C series circuit, the current becomes maximum an the impedance
becomes minimum at an angular frequency called the resonance angular frequency. This
phenomenon is called resonance. At resonance the voltage and current are in phase, and the
impedance Z is equal to the resistance R.

31.6. Transformers
The big positive thing about ac circuits is that it’s easier to step voltage levels up and down. For long
distance we want high voltage and small current so that the power loss is smallest.

How Transformers Work

Key components are two coils, electrically insulated from each other but around the same core with
a high relative permeability so that the magnetic field lines remain in the material and go into the
other coil. This is so that mutual inductance of the two windings are maximized. The coil which
power is supplied to is the primary the other is the secondary.

Ac source creates alternating current, creating flux difference and thus an emf in the other coil. This
can be changed by the difference in the coils

Terminal voltages in a transformer

𝑉2 𝑁2
=
𝑉1 𝑁1

Energy Considerations for Transformers

If the secondary circuit is completed by a resistance R, then the amplitude or rms value of the current
in the secondary obeys Ohm’s Law.

Terminal voltages and current in a transformer

𝑉1 𝑅
𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 or = 2
𝐼1 𝑁2
𝑁1
Transformers: A transformer is used to transform the voltage and current levels in an ac circuit. In an
ideal transformer with no energy losses, if the primary winding has 𝑁1 turns and the secondary
𝑉2 𝑁2
winding has 𝑁2 turns, the amplitudes (or rms values) of the two voltages are related by = . The
𝑉1 𝑁1
amplitudes (or rms values) of the primary and secondary voltages and currents are related by 𝑉1 𝐼1 =
𝑉2 𝐼2.

32. Electromagnetic Waves

These waves have much in common except that electromagnetic waves don’t need a medium to
travel into.

32.1. Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

Faraday’s Law tells us that a time-varying magnetic field acts as a source of electric field
Ampere’s law, including displacement current, shows that a time-varying electric field acts as a
source of magnetic field, this mutual relationship are the Maxwell’s equations. Thus when either an
electric or magnetic field changes with time the other one is induced.

Electricity, Magnetism, and Light

Maxwell found that an electromagnetic disturbance or wave should propagate in free space with a
speed equal to light, and hence that light waves might be electromagnetic waves.

According to Maxwell’s equations, a point charge at rest produces a static electric field but no
magnetic, whereas a point charge moving with a constant velocity produces them both. And if a
charge were to produce electromagnetic waves, the charge should accelerate.

Generating Electromagnetic Radiation

A way to emit electromagnetic waves is to make a point charge oscillate in a simple harmonic
motion, so it has an acceleration at any point. This creates an electric field, which is uniform and
makes waves propagate outward from the charge and are strongest at 90°, and none at the axis.
There is also a magnetic disturbance that spreads outward. This is called electromagnetic radiation.

For example a radio, its antenna is conducting with a lot of oscillating charges, creates this
disturbance and another antenna picks this up

32.2. Plane Electromagnetic Waves and the Speed of Light

Now assume an electric field with only a y component and a magnetic field with only a x component,
with speed c that is initially unknown.

A Simple Plane Electromagnetic Wave

Page 1078 figure 32..5, is the wave front (“like a moving plane”). The electronic and magnetic fields
travel to the right with a definite speed = electromagnetic wave (both uniform). The question is, is it
consistent to the Maxwell’s equations.
By Gauss’s law we get that the wave must be transverse

Faraday’s law: By taking the line integral around a rectangle with a side to a wavefront we get that
the upper and bottom side is zero and the left side only contributes : -Ea page1079

Eventually we get the relationship of

Electromagnetic wave in vacuum

𝐸 = 𝑐𝐵
and by Ampere’s law

𝐵 = 𝜖0 𝜇0 𝑐𝐸
So these 2 must be the same equations for it to be correct
1
𝑐=
√𝜖0 𝜇0

Key Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

- The wave is transverse, both E and B are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave, and are perpendicular to each other. The propagation is the vector product
- There is a definite ratio between the magnitudes of E and B : E=cB
- The wave travels in vacuum with a definite and unchanging speed
- Electromagnetic waves require no medium to travel

Derivation of the electromagnetic Wave Equation

Chapter 15 in NK I a mechanical wave traveling alon the x-axis must satisfy a differential equation, or
the wave equation

𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) 1 𝜕 2 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Derivation see page 1082+1083
𝜕𝐸𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕𝐵𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑡)
Faraday ∶ =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕𝐵𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑡)
Ampere ∶ 𝜖0 𝜇0 =−
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
∂2 𝐸𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡)
Wave Equation Electric Field ∶ = 𝜖 0 𝜇0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
∂2 𝐵𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑡) 𝜕 2 𝐵𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑡)
Wave Equation Magnetic Field ∶ = 𝜖 0 𝜇0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
As we can here if we compare the wave equation for mechanical waves we can find that the speed
here is the speed of light.

Maxwell’s equations and electromagnetic waves: Maxwell’s equations predict the existence of
electromagnetic waves that propagate in vacuum at the speed of light, c. The electromagnetic
spectrum covers frequencies from at least 1 to 1024 Hz and a correspondingly broad range of
wavelengths. Visible light, with wavelengths from 380 to 750 nm, is a very small part of this
spectrum. In a plane wave, 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are uniform over any plane perpendicular to the propagation
direction. Faraday’s law and Ampere’s law give relationships between the magnitudes of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗;
requiring that both relationships are satisfied gives an expression for c in terms of 𝜖0 and 𝜇0 .
Electromagnetic waves are transverse; the 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵 ⃗ fields are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation and to each other. The direction of propagation is the direction of 𝐸⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗
 32.3. Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Waves
Wavelength speed

𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓

Fields of a Sinusoidal Wave

The electric and magnetic fields oscillate in phase : E max when B is max etc, pos pos, neg neg, and
the vector product is the direction in which the wave is propagating

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

Wave number
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
So we now get it in vector form (if the wave moves in -x direction, one of these 2 has to be negative)

𝐸⃗ (𝑥, 𝑡) = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑦 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)

⃗ (𝑥, 𝑡) = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 𝑒𝑧 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
Also with

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥

Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

These waves can also travel in matter, also thus in dielectrics. In all equations change the speed of
light into another speed because this matter can alter this speed.

𝐸 = 𝑣𝐵 and 𝐵 = 𝜖𝜇𝑣𝐵
Speed of electromagnetic waves in dielectric
1 1 1 𝑐
𝑣= = =
√𝜖𝜇 √𝐾𝐾𝑚 √𝜖0 𝜇0 √𝐾𝐾𝑚

This ratio is called index of refraction n

𝑐
= 𝑛 = √𝐾𝐾𝑚 ≅ √𝐾 because Km is almost always = 1
𝑣
Sinusoidal electromagnetic waves: 𝐸⃗ (𝑥, 𝑡) and 𝐵⃗ (𝑥, 𝑡) describe a sinusoidal plane electromagnetic
wave traveling in vacuum in the +𝑥-direction. If the wave is propagating in the −𝑥-direction, replace
𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 by 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡.

Electromagnetic waves in matter: When an electromagnetic wave travels through a dielectric, the
wave speed v is less than the speed of light in vacuum c.

32.4. Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves

We start to derive this with energy densities

The total energy density u

1 1 2 𝐸
𝑢 = 𝜖0 𝐸 2 + 𝐵 = 𝜖0 𝐸 2 , still with 𝐵 = = √𝜖0 𝜇0 𝐸
2 2𝜇0 𝑐
Electromagnetic Energy Flow and the Poynting Vector
We can describe this in terms of energy transferred per unit time per unit cross-sectional area or
power per unit area.(mostly perpendicular to the direction of wave travel)

So the energy flow per unit time per unit area or S

1 𝑑𝑈 𝜖0 𝜖0 𝐸𝐵 𝐽
𝑆= = 𝜖0 𝑐𝐸 2 = 𝐸2 = √ 𝐸2 = in 2 or 𝑊/𝑚2
𝐴 𝑑𝑡 √𝜖0 𝜇0 𝜇0 𝜇0 𝑠𝑚

Poynting vector in vacuum

1
𝑆= 𝐸⃗ × 𝐵
⃗
𝜇0
The intensity I

2
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 𝜖0 2 1 2
𝑃
𝐼 = 𝑆𝑎𝑣 = = = √ 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜖0 𝑐𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝜇0 2𝜇0 𝑐 2 𝜇0 2 𝐴

Electromagnetic Momentum Flow and Radiation Pressure

EM waves transport energy, but they can also carry momentum p with corresponding momentum
density (dp/dV)
𝑑𝑝 𝐸𝐵 𝑆
= 2
= 2
𝑑𝑉 𝜇0 𝑐 𝑐
With corresponding flow rate of electromagnetic momentum
1 𝑑𝑝 𝑆 𝐸𝐵
= = , 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴𝑐 𝑑𝑡
𝐴 𝑑𝑡 𝑐 𝜇0 𝑐
This momentum is responsible for radiation pressure, when an EM wave is completely absorbed by a
surface its momentum is also transferred. So this equals actually to the force on the surface
𝑆𝑎𝑣 𝐼 2𝑆𝑎𝑣 2𝐼
𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = (wave totally absorbed) 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = (wave totally reflected)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Energy and momentum in electromagnetic waves: The energy flow rate (power per unit area) in an
electromagnetic wave in vacuum is given by the Poynting vector 𝑆. The magnitude of the time-
averaged value of the Poynting vector is called the intensity I of the wave. Electromagnetic waves
also carry momentum. When an electromagnetic wave strikes a surface, it exerts a radiation pressure
𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 . If the surface is perpendicular to the wave propagation direction and is totally absorbing,
𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼/𝑐; if the surface is a perfect reflector, 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 2𝐼/𝑐.

32.5. Standing Electromagnetic Waves

EM waves can be reflected by the surface of a conductor or of a dielectric. The superposition of an
incident wave and a reflect wave forms a standing wave. We can use superposition with results and
we see that both are 90° out of phase

𝐸𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝐵𝑧 (𝑥, 𝑡) = −2𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑘𝑥 cos 𝜔𝑡

Nodal Planes (so where it becomes zero)
 𝜆 𝜆 3λ 5𝜆
Nodal planes for E ∶ 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜆, … , Nodal planes for B ∶ 𝑥 = , , ,…
2 4 4 4
Antinodal planes
𝜆 3λ 5𝜆 𝜆
Antinodal planes for E ∶ 𝑥 = , , , … , Antinodal planes for B ∶ 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜆, …
4 4 4 2
Standing Waves in a Cavity
Both conducting planes must be nodal planes for the electric field, a standing wave can exist only
when the second plane is place at one of the positions where E(x,t)=0 so L must be an integer
𝜆
multiple of 2

2𝐿 𝑐 𝑐
𝜆𝑛 = frequency 𝑓𝑛 = =𝑛
𝑛 𝜆𝑛 2𝐿
These are called normal modes

Standing electromagnetic waves: If a perfect reflecting surface is placed at 𝑥 = 0, the incident and
reflected waves form a standing wave. Nodal planes for 𝐸⃗ occur at 𝑘𝑥 = 0, π, 2π, … and nodal planes
⃗ at 𝑘𝑥 = 𝜋 , 3𝜋 , 5𝜋 , .. At each point, the sinusoidal variations of 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵
for 𝐵 ⃗ with time are 90° out of
2 2 2
phase.

33. The Nature and Propagation of Light

33.1. The Nature of Light
The Two Personalities of Light
The propagation of light should be done by a wave model, but the emission and absorption requires
a particle approach.

All bodies emit EM radiation as a result of thermal motion = thermal radiation and can be seen as
light

Light can also be produced by ionization of gasses.

𝑐 = 2.99792458 ∗ 108 𝑚/𝑠

Waves, Wave Fronts, and Rays

Wave front = the locus of all adjacent points at which the phase of vibration of a physical quantity
associated with the wave is the same

Rays = a ray is an imaginary line along the direction of travel of the wave

Geometric optics = rays etc

Physical optics = wave behaviour

Light and its properties: Light is an electromagnetic wave. When emitted or absorbed, it also shows
particle properties. It is emitted by accelerated electric charges.
A wave front is a surface of constant phase; wave fronts move with a speed equal to the propagation
speed of the wave. A ray is a line along the direction of propagation, perpendicular to the wave
fronts.
When light is transmitted from one material to another, the frequency of the light is unchanged, but
the wavelength and wave speed can change. The index of refraction n of a material is the ratio of the
speed of light in vacuum c to the speed v in the material. If 𝜆0 is the wavelength in vacuum, the same
wave has a shorter wavelength 𝜆 in a medium with index of refraction n.

33.2. Reflection and Refraction

Reflected = light wave to smooth surface separating two transparent materials, the part that doesn’t
go through this

Refracted = light wave that goes through this surface, can be with another angle, there is a rate for
this

Reflection is always that the reflected wave has the same angle as incoming wave (smooth surface) ,
this can be scattered due to a rough surface.
Vast majority of objects that we can see reflect this light. (Opaque materials)

Index of refraction
𝑐
𝑛= , v is speed in material
𝑣
The Laws of Reflection and Refraction
1. Incident reflected and refracted rays and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane
2. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence for all wavelengths and for any
pair of materials : law of reflection
3. Ratio of the sines of the angles, where both angles are measured from the normal to the
surface, is equal to the inverse ratio of the two indexes of refraction : law of refraction or
Snell’s law

𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎 = 𝑛𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑏
The wave characteristics also change when travelling through another material

Wavelength of light in a material

𝜆0 𝑐 𝑣
𝜆= ,𝑓 = =
𝑛 𝜆0 𝜆
Reflection and refraction: At a smooth interface between two optical materials, the incident,
reflected, and refracted rays and the normal to the interface all lie in a single plane called the plane
of incidence. The law of reflection states that the angles of incidence and reflection are equal. The
law of refraction relates the angles of incidence and refraction to the indexes of refraction of the
materials.

33.3. Total Internal Reflection

It can happen that light can be totally reflected, this happens at a critical angle, the ray is bent away
from the normal. (na>nb a is incident material, b is refraction material)

Critical angle for total internal reflection

𝑛𝑏
sin 𝜃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 =
𝑛𝑎
This comes from Snell’s law of refraction
𝑛𝑎
sin 𝜃𝑏 = sin 𝜃𝑎
𝑛𝑏
Total internal reflection: When a ray travels in a material of index of refraction 𝑛𝑎 toward a material
of index 𝑛𝑏 < 𝑛𝑎 total internal reflection occurs at the interface when the angle of incidence equals
or exceeds a critical angle 𝜃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 .

33.4. Dispersion
Ordinary white light is a superposition of waves with all visible wavelengths, and the speed of these
wavelengths can be different for each in a certain material. Therefore the index of refraction of a
materials depends on wavelengths.
Dispersion = the dependence of wave speed and the index of refraction of wavelength

33.5. Polarization
Linearly polarized = only certain (like only x or y or z)-displacements

Polarizing filter / polarizer = this filter can be used to permit only waves with a certain polarization
direction to pass

Polarizing Filters
Dichroism = a selective absorption in which one of the polarized components is absorbed much more
strongly than the other, especially with a polarizing axis. (perpendicular to that axis only 1% of the
intensity is going “trough”)

Using Polarizing Filters

An ideal polarizing filter passes 100% of the incident light that is polarized parallel to the filter’s
polarizing axis but completely blocks all light that is polarized perpendicular to this axis.

When unpolarised light is incident on an ideal polarizer, the intensity of the transmitted light is
exactly half that of the incident unpolarised light no matter how the polarizing axis was oriented

If we use 2 polarizers and put them right after each other but with their axis perpendicular to each
other, almost zero light will come through. This relationship is called the Malus Law

Malus’s law

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos2 𝜙 , the angle between polarizer and analyzer or already polarized light (first
→ second)
Only applies when the incident light passing through the analyser is already linearly polarized

Polarization by Reflection
This can also be done by either partially or even totally by reflection.

For most angles of incidence, waves for which E vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence or
parallel to the surface are reflected more strongly. In this case the reflected light is partially polarized
in the direction perpendicular to the plane of incidence.

At one special angle of incidence , polarizing angle, the light for which E lies in the plane of incidence
is not reflected at all but completely refracted.
This same angle but for E lies perpendicular to the plane of incidence light is partially reflected and
partially refracted, whereas the reflected light is completely polarized perp. To the plane of incidence.
This is called the Brewster law.

Brewster’s law for the polarizing angle

 𝑛𝑏
tan 𝜃𝑝 =
𝑛𝑎
Polarization of light: The direction of polarization of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave is the
direction of the 𝐸⃗ field. A polarizing filter passes waves that are linearly polarized along its polarizing
axis and blocks waves polarized perpendicularly to that axis. When polarized light if intensity 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 is
incident on a polarizing filter used as an analyser, the intensity I of the light transmitted through the
analyser depends on the angle 𝜙 between the polarization direction of the incident light and the
polarizing axis of the analyser.

Polarization by reflection: When unpolarised light strikes an interface between two materials,
Brewster’s law states that the reflected light is completely polarized perpendicular to the plane of
incidence (parallel to the interface) if the angle of incidence equals the polarizing angle 𝜃𝑝 .

33.6. Scattering of Light

When we look at the daytime sky, the light that you see is sunlight that has been absorbed and then
re-radiated in a variety of directions = scattering

33.7. Huygens’s Principle

= every point of a wave front may be considered the source of secondary wavelets that spread out
in all directions with a speed equal to the speed of propagation of the wave.

35. Interference
Or Physical optics
𝜆
∆𝜃 =
𝑑
35.1. Interference and Coherent Sources
Interference = overlapping of two or more waves in space, where the total wave at any point at any
instant of time is governed by the principle of superposition. States

When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at any instant is
found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be produced at the point by the
individual waves if each were present alone.

Constructive and Destructive Interference

Suppose two identical sources of monochromatic waves (or same light),so these two are
permanently in phase and same frequency = coherent (and same polarization for transverse waves)

Constructive interference = when waves from two or more sources arrive at a point in phase, they
reinforce each other and the amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum, or

𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑚𝜆
Destructive = when the two are exactly out of phase and the total amplitude is the difference of
amplitudes, or this happens when
1
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆
2
Antinodal curves = the curves where constructive interference happens
Nodal curves = the curves where destructive interference happens

Same wavelength and always be in phase

Practical there is seldom a monochromatic source : solution, divide it in different sources

Interference and Coherent Sources: Monochromatic light is light with a single frequency.
Coherence is a definite, unchanging phase relationship between two waves.
The overlap of waves from two coherent sources of monochromatic light forms an interference
pattern. The principle of superposition states that the total wave disturbance at any point is the sum
of the disturbances from the separate waves.

35.2. Two-Source Interference of Light

Experiment page 1188, The difference in path length can be found by

𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃 , 𝜃 = angle between line from slit to screen and normal to plane of slits

Constructive and Destructive Two-Slit Interference

The same actually applies, so constructive is integer wavelength, and destructive, is half integer
wavelength, visual explanation see page 1189.
1
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 and = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆
2
In reality these angles are very small, the position of the m’th bright band is the distance to the
screen from the slits R, and distance between slits

𝑚𝜆
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑅
𝑑
Two-Source interference of light: When two sources are in phase, constructive interference occurs
where the difference in path length from the two source is zero or an integer number of
wavelengths.
Destructive interference occurs where the path difference is a half-integer number of wavelengths.
If two sources separated by a distance d are both very far from a point P, and the line from the
sources to P makes an angle 𝜃 with the line perpendicular to the line of the sources, then the
condition for constructive interference at P is equation below

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
The condition for destructive interference is equation below.
1
𝑑 sin 𝜃 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆
2
When theta is very small, the position 𝑦𝑚 of the mth bright fringe on a screen located a distance R
from the sources is given by equation below. (distance from slits to screen)
𝑚𝜆
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑅
𝑑
35.3. Intensity in Interference Patters
1
Each source by itself will give an intensity 𝜖0 𝑐𝐸 2 at point P (we use phasornotation)
2
Amplitude in Two-Source Interference
Assuming same frequency and amplitude but with a phase difference we get

Electric-field amplitude in two-source interference

𝜙
𝐸𝑝 = 2𝐸 |cos | , 𝜙 phase difference
2
Intensity in two-Source Interference
We refer to earlier chapter (32)

𝐸𝑝2 1 𝜖0 1
𝐼 = 𝑆𝑎𝑣 = = √ 𝐸𝑝2 = 𝜖0 𝑐𝐸𝑝2 ;
2µ0 𝑐 2 µ0 2

Intensity in two-source interference = Intensiteitsverdeling

𝜙 𝑘𝑑 sin 𝜃 𝜋𝑑 sin 𝜃 𝜋𝑑𝑦
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos 2 = 𝐼0 cos2 = 𝐼0 cos 2 = 𝐼0 cos 2
2 2 𝜆 𝜆𝑅
Phase Difference and Path Difference
The phase difference at any point
2𝜋
𝜙= (𝑟 − 𝑟1 ) = 𝑘(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) = 𝑘𝑑 sin 𝜃 , with k wave number
𝜆 2
If the material is something else besides vacuum we must also substitute or take into account the
index of refraction
𝜆0
𝜆= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 𝑛𝑘0
𝑛
Intensity in interference patterns: When two sinusoidal waves with equal amplitude E and phase
difference 𝜙 are superimposed, the resultant amplitude 𝐸𝑝 and intensity I are given by equations
below.
𝜙
𝐸𝑝 = 2𝐸 |cos | , 𝜙 phase difference
2
𝜙 𝜋𝑑 sin 𝜃 𝜋𝑑𝑦
𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 = 𝐼0 cos2 = 𝐼0 cos2
2 𝜆 𝜆𝑅
If the two sources emit in phase, the phase difference 𝜙 at a point P (located a distance 𝑟1 from
source 1 and a distance 𝑟2 from source 2) is directly proportional to the path difference 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
2𝜋
𝜙= (𝑟 − 𝑟1 ) = 𝑘(𝑟2 − 𝑟1 ) = 𝑘𝑑 sin 𝜃 , with k wave number
𝜆 2
35.4. Interference in Thin Films
Light is reflected in a thin film from the upper and the lower side, which is a cause for certain
interference phenomena in thin films.

Thin-Film Interference and Phase Shifts

Normal incidence amplitude 𝑬𝒓 reflected from the interface
𝑛𝑎 − 𝑛𝑏
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸
𝑛𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏 𝑖
Na>nb slow -> fast ; na < nb fast -> slow

Eventually we get

Constructive and Destructive reflection (From thin film, no relative phase shift, t = thickness of
film)
1
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟 and 2𝑡 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟
2
Half Cycle phase shift
1
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟 and 2𝑡 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟
2
Non reflective and reflective coatings, both use thin-film interference, if the film thickness is a
quarter of the wavelength in the film, the total path difference is a half-wavelength and creating
destructive interference. But can only be for one certain wavelength.

Interference in thin films: When light is reflected from both sides of a thin film of thickness t and no
phase shift occurs at either surface, constructive interference between the reflected waves occurs
when 2t is equal to an integral number of wavelengths.

If a half-cycle phase shift occurs at one surface, this is the condition for destructive interference.

A half-cycle phase shift occurs during reflection whenever the index of refraction in the second
material is greater than that in the first.

Reflection from thin film, with no relative phase shift

1
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟 and 2𝑡 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟
2
Reflection from thin film, with half-cycle phase shift
1
2𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟 and 2𝑡 = (𝑚 + ) 𝜆 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟
2
35.5. The Michelson Interferometer
Used to make precise measurements of wavelengths and of very small distances, such as the minute
changes in thickness of an axon when a nerve impulse propagates along its length. Page 1201.

The Michelson interferometer uses a monochromatic light source and can be used for high-precision
measurements of wavelengths. Its original purpose was to detect motion of the earth relative to a
hypothetical ether, the supposed medium for electromagnetic waves. The ether has never been
detected, and the concept has been abandoned; the speed of light is the same relative to all
observers. This is part of the foundation of the special theory of relativity.
𝑚𝜆
𝑦=
2
36. Diffraction
36.1. Fresnel and Fraunhoffer Diffraction
Diffraction is kind of turning around shadow for light, it’s the reason why there is never a perfect line
in shadow.

Diffraction and Huygens’s Principle

We can use huygens’s principle to analyse diffraction patterns.

Fresnel Diffraction = near-field diffraction , diffraction close to the obstacle/source/screen

Fraunhofer diffraction = source, obstacle and screen far enough apart, so all lines can be seen as
parallel.

Diffraction occurs when light passes through an aperture or around an edge. When the source and
the observer are so far away from the obstructing surface that the outgoing rays can be considered
parallel, it is called Fraunhofer diffraction. When the source or the observer is relatively close to the
obstructing surface, it is Fresnel diffraction.

36.2. Diffraction From a Single Slit

We don’t get what we expect with geometrical optics, but instead we get bands, diffraction pattern,
set of bright and dark fringes. 85% is in central band. Width inversely proportional to slit width. So
narrow slit → broad bands

Single-Slit Diffraction: Locating the Dark Fringes

Page 1213 figure 36.4.

Monochromatic light sent through a narrow slit of width a produces a diffraction pattern on a distant
screen. The equation below gives the condition for destructive interferences or dark fringes at a
point P in the pattern at angle theta.

Dark Fringes, single-slit diffraction (angle of line from center of slit to m’th dark fringe on screen)
𝑚𝜆
sin 𝜃 =
𝑎
If theta is small, the sin of theta = theta, distance from slit to screen is x, vertical distance of m’th
dark band is ym than tan(theta) = ym/x and for small theta we can approximate tan (theta) by theta,
a = slit width
𝑚𝜆
𝑦=𝑥
𝑎
The light fringes are in between the dark, note it’s symmetrical!!!

36.3. Intensity in the Single-Slit Pattern

Amplitude in single-slit diffraction
𝛽
sin 2
𝐸𝑝 = 𝐸0
𝛽
2
Intensity in single-slit diffraction
 2
𝛽
sin 2
I = 𝐼0 ( )
𝛽
2
Phase difference beta
2𝜋
𝛽= 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜆
Intensity in single-slit diffraction, 𝑰𝟎 = intensity at 𝜽 = 0, 𝜽 = angle of line from center of slit to
position on screen

𝜋 2
sin [ 𝑎 sin 𝜃]
I = 𝐼0 ( 𝜋 𝜆 )
𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝜆
The dark fringes in the pattern are the places where I = 0 , these occur at points for which the
numerator is zero, so that 𝛽 is a multiple of 2𝜋

Intensity Maxima in the Single-Slit Pattern

The peaks (approx. ±5𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 ± 𝜋 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙: 4.918𝜋 ; 2.860𝜋)
𝐼0
𝐼𝑚 ≈
1 2
(𝑚 + 2) 𝜋 2

Width of the Single-Slit Pattern

For small angles the angular spread of diffraction pattern is inversely proportional to ratio of slit
width a to wavelength 𝜆

For m = 1
𝜆
𝜃1 =
𝑎
36.4. Multiple Slits
d is distance between slits, for two slits of finite width we get

𝛽 2
𝜙 sin 2 2𝑑𝜋 2𝜋
I = 𝐼0 cos2 ( ) ; 𝜙= sin 𝜃 ; 𝛽 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
2 𝛽 𝜆 𝜆
2
Several Slits
Constructive interference occurs for rays at angle 𝜃 to the normal that arrive at point P with a path
difference between adjacent slits equal to an integer number of wavelengths

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
2𝜋
A minimum occurs with 𝜙 = 𝑚2𝜋 ± 𝑁

36.5. The Diffraction Grating

A diffraction grating consists of a large number of thin parallel slits, spaced a distance d apart. The
condition for maximum intensity in the interference pattern is the same as for the two-source
pattern, but the maxima for the grating are very sharp and narrow
The m’th order spectra is specified for each m. (first order : m=+-1; second : m=+-2 ; etc)

Intensity maxima, multiple slits, d distance between slits, 𝜃 angle of line from center of slit array to
m’th bright region on screen

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆

Grating Spectrographs
Is used to measure the spectrum of light emitted by a source, spectroscopy.

Minimum wavelength difference Δ𝜆

Chromatic resolving power R

𝜆
𝑅= = 𝑁𝑚
Δ𝜆
N number of slits, m the order of diffraction-pattern maximum

36.6. X-Ray Diffraction

A crystal serves as a three-dimensional diffraction grating for x rays with wavelengths of the same
order of magnitude as the spacing between atoms in the crystal. For a set of crystal planes spaced a
distance d apart, constructive interference occurs when the angles of incidence and scattering
(measured from the crystal planes) are equal and the Bragg condition is satisfied.

Bragg condition for constructive interference from an array

2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
Page 1228, text + example 36.5

36.7. Circular Apertures and Resolving Power

The diffraction pattern from a circular aperture of diameter D consists of a central bright spot, called
the Airy disk, and a series of concentric dark and bright rings. The equation below gives the angular
radius 𝜃1 of the first dark ring, equal to the angular size of the Airy disk. Diffraction sets the ultimate
limit on resolution (image sharpness) of optical instruments. According to Rayleigh’s criterion, two
point objects are just barely resolved when their angular separation theta is given by equation below.

Diffraction by a circular aperture, D= aperture diameter, theta1 is angular radius of first dark ring =
angular radius of airy disk
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
sin 𝜃1 = 1.22 (sin 𝜃2 = 2.23 sin 𝜃3 = 3.24 )
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
Diffraction by a circular aperture, D= aperture diameter, theta1 is angular radius of first bright ring
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
sin 𝜃1 = 1.63 (sin 𝜃2 = 2.68 sin 𝜃3 = 3.70 )
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
Rayleigh’s criterion is a criterion for resolution of two point objects, and is that the objects are just
barely resolved (that is, distinguishable) if the center of one diffraction pattern coincides with the
first minimum of the other.

Example 36.6 page 1230

𝑓
𝐷 = 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)
2.8
 36.8. Holography
Page 1232 some formula

37. Relativity
37.1. Invariance of Physical Laws
Einstein’s First Postulate
= Principle of relativity : the laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference.

e.g. ball that is thrown op whilst inside a train, you can’t determine the speed of the train by looking
at the ball, if you are also on the train = same inertial frame of reference

Einstein’s Second Postulate

= The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames of reference and is independent of
the motion of source.

e.g. normal Newtonian mechanics: you fire a missile at relatively 2000m/s to your own aircraft, while
you are moving at 1000m/s at earth, so in the frame of earth this missile moves 3000m/s .
With light, this doesn’t happen, it stays 2000m/s (normally c, but to stay with the same values for the
sake of explanation).

The Ultimate Speed Limit

Einstein’s second postulate implies it is impossible for an inertial observer to travel at c, the speed
of light in vacuum.

The Galilean Coordinate Transformation

𝑥 = 𝑥 ′ + 𝑢𝑡 ; 𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ ; 𝑧 = 𝑧 ′ with 𝑢 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑠
Deriving it

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥′ + 𝑢 but 𝑐 = 𝑐 ′ + 𝑢 → u = 0 𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞

37.2. Relativity of Simultaneity

Measuring times and time intervals involves the concept of simultaneity, in a given frame of
reference, an event is an occurrence that has a definite position and time. BUT

Two events that are simultaneous in one frame of reference are not simultaneous in a second frame
moving relative to the first.

A Thought Experiment in Simultaneity

Page 1246+1247

37.3. Relativity of Time Intervals

We can derive a quantitative relationship between time intervals in different coordinate systems.

Page 1248 is the derivation

Time Dilation and Proper Time

Suppose two events occur at the same point in space, e.g. ticks of a clock.

Proper time = the time interval between two events that occur at the same point ∆𝑡0 in same frame
Time Dilation , u = speed of second frame u relative to the first frame (time interval between same
events measurend in second frame of reference)
∆𝑡0
∆𝑡 = ; ∆𝑡 = 𝛾∆𝑡0
2
√1 − 𝑢2
𝑐
∆𝑡 is always larger!!!

Lorentz Factor
1
𝛾=
2
√1 − 𝑢2
𝑐
The Twin Paradox
Page 1252

Time Dilation: If two events occur at the same space point in a particular frame of reference, the
time interval Δ𝑡0 between the events as measured in that frame is called a proper time interval. If
this frame moves with constant velocity u relative to a second frame, the time interval Δ𝑡 between
the events as observed in the second frame is longer than Δ𝑡0 .

37.4. Relativity of Length

The distance can also depend on the observer’s frame of reference.

Lengths Parallel to the Relative Motion

Page 1252

This is not an optical illusion this is real!

Length contraction, 𝑙0 is proper length of object (measured in first frame)

𝑢2 𝑙0
𝑙 = 𝑙0 √1 − =
𝑐2 𝛾

This is only for lengths parallel to the motion!!!

The fastest object get shrunk for the slowest!

Length contraction: If two points are at rest in a particular frame of reference, the distance 𝑙0
between the points as measured in that frame is called a proper length. If this frame moves with
constant velocity u relative to a second frame and the distances are measured parallel to the motion,
the distance l between the points as measured in the second frame is shorter than 𝑙0 .

37.5. The Lorentz Transformations

Galileon transformation is valid only in limit when u approaches zero, now comes more general

The Lorentz Coordinate Transformation

From Galilean coordinate and length relativity
 𝑢2 𝑥 − 𝑢𝑡
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑥 ′ √1 − 2
or 𝑥 ′ =
𝑐 2
√1 − 𝑢2
𝑐
But we also need to write in terms of the t’ of the second reference frame
ux
𝑢2 t− 2
′ ′ ′
𝑥 = −𝑢𝑡 + 𝑥 √1 − 2 𝑜𝑟 t = c = 𝛾 (𝑡 − 𝑢𝑥 )
𝑐 2 𝑐2
√1 − 𝑢2
𝑐
Lorentz coordinate transformation: Spacetime coordinates of an event are x,y,z,t in frames S and x’,
y’, z’, t’ in frame S’, u speed of S’ relative to S
𝒙 − 𝒖𝒕
𝒙′ =
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒄
𝐮𝐱
𝐭−
′
𝐭 = 𝐜 𝟐 = 𝜸 (𝒕 − 𝒖𝒙)
𝟐 𝒄𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
𝒄
𝒚′ = 𝒚
𝒛′ = 𝒛
Space and time have become intertwined; we can no longer say that length and time have absolute
meanings independent of the frame of reference, thus we speak of four-dimensional spacetime
(x,y,z,t)

The Lorentz transformations: The Lorentz coordinate transformations relate the coordinates and
time of an event in an inertial frame S to the coordinates and time of the same event as observed in a
second inertial frame 𝑆′ moving at velocity u relative to the first. For one-dimensional motion, a
particle’s velocities 𝑣𝑥 in S and 𝑣𝑥′ in 𝑆 ′ are related by the Lorentz velocity transformation.

The Lorentz Velocity Transformation

Page 1257 derivation

Lorentz velocity transformation (velocity in S’ in terms of velocity in S)

𝑣𝑥 − 𝑢
𝑣𝑥′ = ′ ′
𝑢𝑣 (𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∶ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑥 ) else replace 𝑣𝑥 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑥 ; 𝑢 → −𝑢
1 − 2𝑥
𝑐
37.6. The Doppler Effect for Electromagnetic Waves
Rest frame 𝑓0 ; 𝑇0 = 1/𝑓0

T = interval between emission of successive wave crests != interval between arrival of successive
crests, so 1/T is not equal to f but
𝑐
𝑓=
(𝑐 − 𝑢)𝑇
1 √𝑐 2 − 𝑢2 √𝑐 2 − 𝑢2
= = 𝑓0 (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛!)
𝑇 𝑐𝑇0 𝑐
Doppler effect, electromagnetic waves, source approaching observer

𝑐+𝑢
𝑓=√ 𝑓
𝑐−𝑢 0

Doppler effect, electromagnetic waves, source moving away observer

𝑐−𝑢
𝑓=√ 𝑓
𝑐+𝑢 0
With Doppler frequency shift 𝑓 − 𝑓0 = ∆𝑓
∆𝑓
Fractional shift 𝑓

ONLY relative motion is important not like sound where direction is also important.

37.7. Relativistic Momentum

Normal momentum : 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Relativistic momentum, m is rest mass of particle

𝑚𝑣
𝑝= = 𝛾𝑚𝑣
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
The second law of newton must also be adjusted by :
𝑑𝑝 𝑑 𝑚𝑣
𝐹= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐
Relativistic law of newton
𝑚
𝐹= 3𝑎 = 𝛾 3 𝑚𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙 ∶ 𝐹 = 𝛾𝑚𝑎
𝑣2 2
(1 − )
𝑐2

37.8. Relativistic Work and Energy

Relativistic Kinetic Energy
Work
𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑚
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥1 𝑥1 𝑣2 2
(1 − )
𝑐2
Kinetic energy is net work done on it moving from rest to speed v: K = W

Relativistic kinetic energy

𝑣
𝑚𝑣𝑥 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐾=∫ 3 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = − 𝑚𝑐 2 = (𝛾 − 1)𝑚𝑐 2
0 𝑣2 2 √1 − 𝑣2
(1 − ) 𝑐2
𝑐2
Rest Energy and E=mc^2
Seems that kinetic energy is difference between total energy E and energy mc^2

Total Energy of a particle, m is rest mass (so if K=0, E=mc^2(=rest energy))

𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑲 + 𝒎𝒄𝟐 = = 𝜸𝒎𝒄𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐
𝒄𝟐
Total energy, rest energy, and momentum, p is momentum

𝐸 2 = (𝑚𝑐 2 )2 + (𝑝𝑐)2
So if a particle has no mass (e.g. photon), it always travels at speed of light in vacuum

37.9. Newtonian Mechanics and Relativity

See page 1268 + 1269

38. Photons: Light Waves Behaving as Particles

Photons: Electromagnetic radiation behaves as both waves and particles. The energy in an
electromagnetic wave is carried in units called photons (a package of definite energy). The energy E
of one photon is proportional to the wave frequency f and inversely proportional to the wavelength
𝜆, and is proportional to a universal quantity h called Planck’s constant.
𝒉𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇 =
𝝀
The momentum of a photon has magnitude E/c
𝑬 𝒉𝒇 𝒉
𝒑= = =
𝒄 𝒄 𝝀
Electron volt

𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 ∗ 10−19 𝐽 (= 1 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡)

38.1. Light Absorbed as Photons : The Photoelectric Effect

= a material emits electrons from its surface when illuminated

The Photoelectric Effect: In the photoelectric effect, a surface can eject an electron by absorbing a
photon whose energy hf is greater than or equal to the work function 𝜙 of the material. The stopping
potential 𝑉0 is the voltage required to stop a current of ejected electrons from reaching an anode.

𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙

Threshold Frequency and Stopping Potential

1
Experiment of shooting electrons (page 1279+1280) the highest kinetic energy is 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 for
electron and zero at anode, using work-energy theorem

Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons

1
𝑊𝑡𝑜𝑡 = −𝑒𝑉0 = ∆𝐾 = 0 − 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 so 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉0 = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
Maxwell’s explanation doesn’t compute so Einstein’s finds a solution
Einstein’s Photon Explanation
Energy E of an individual photon is equal to a constant times the photon frequency f, and from f=c/𝜆

Energy of a photon
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆
Planck’s constant h

ℎ = 6.62606957(29)𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠
The energy transfer is an all-or-nothing process, the electron gets all of the photon’s energy or none
at all. The electron can escape from the surface only if the energy it acquires is greater than the work
function 𝜙. So ℎ𝑓 > 𝜙 𝑜𝑟 𝑓 > 𝜙/ℎ only then will photoelectrons be ejected. 𝜙 is minimum energy
needed to remove an electron from the surface, so the maximum energy an electron can have
(kinetic) is energy hf minus this work function or minimum energy needed.

Photoelectric effect:

𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙

Photon Momentum
This concept applies to all regions so including momentum, with E=pc

Momentum of a photon
𝐸 ℎ𝑓 ℎ
𝑝= = =
𝑐 𝑐 𝜆

38.2. Light Emitted as Photons X-Ray Production

X-Ray Photons
Bremsstrahlung = braking radiation, is slowing electrons down for it to create X-rays

Electron has charge -e and kinetic energy 𝑒𝑉𝐴𝐶 when accelerated through a potential increase 𝑉𝐴𝐶 .
The most energetic photon (= highest frequency and shortest wavelength) is produced if the electron
is braked to a stop all at once when it hits the anode, so all kinetic energy goes to produce one
photon. This is bremsstrahlung. (work function and initial kin. Energy of electrons is negligibly small)

Photon production: X rays can be produced when electrons accelerated to high kinetic energy across
a potential increase 𝑉𝐴𝐶 strike a target. The photon model explains why the maximum frequency and
minimum wavelength produced are given by the equation of bremsstrahlung.
ℎ𝑐
𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎ℎ𝑙𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑉𝐴𝐶 = ℎ𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛

38.3. Light Scattered as Photons: Compton Scattering and Pair Production

After producing and before absorbing. This is scattering of light.

Compton Scattering
Experiment page 1288

This is that some of the scattered radiation had smaller frequency than the incident radiation and
that the change in wavelength depends on the angle through which the radiation is scattered.
photon scattering: In Compton scattering a photon transfers some of its energy and momentum to
an electron with which it collides. For free electrons (rest mass m), the wavelengths of incident 𝜆 and
scattered 𝜆′ photons are related to the photon scattering angle 𝜙.
ℎ
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜆′ − 𝜆 = Δ𝜆 = (1 − cos 𝜙)
𝑚𝑐
The same can be done with momentum. We see that

𝑃𝑒 = 𝑝 − ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑝′
And (which can be used to form the Compton scattering formula , p=h/𝜆)
𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑐
− = 1 − cos 𝜙
𝑝′ 𝑝

Pair Production
Gamma ray = shortest-wavelength: highest-frequency, if a gamma-ray photon of sufficiently short
wavelength is fired at a target, it may disappear completely and be replaced by two new particles;
and electron and a positron (“positive electron”) = pair production

Incident photon has zero charge, so the pair also must have zero charge. Enough energy must be
available to account for the rest energy 2𝑚𝑐 2 of the two particles

𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑚𝑐 2 = 1.022 𝑀𝑒𝑉

So the photon must at least have this energy, and from E=hc/𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 1.213 𝑝𝑚
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛
1/1000 of x-ray.
Pair production: In pair production a photon of sufficient energy can disappear and be replaced by
an electron positron pair. In the inverse process, an electron and a positron can annihilate and be
replaced by a pair of photons.

38.4. Wave-Particle Duality, Probability and Uncertainty

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle: It is impossible to determine both a photon’s position and its
momentum at the same time to arbitrarily high precision. The precision of such measurements for
the x-components is limited by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle below
ℎ
∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐮𝐦
4𝜋
There are corresponding relationships for the y- and z- components. The uncertainty ∆𝐸 in the
energy of a state that is occupied for a time ∆𝑡 is given by equation below
ℎ
∆𝑡∆𝐸 ≥ 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
4𝜋
39. Particles Behaving as Waves
39.1. Electron Waves
If a particle acts like a wave, it should have a wavelength and a frequency. So that a free particle with
rest mass m, moving with nonrelativistic speed v, should have a wavelength related to its momentum
p.

De Broglie wavelength
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
Energy of a Particle

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
De Broglie waves and Electron Diffraction: Electrons and other particles have wave properties. A
particle’s wavelength depends on its momentum in the same way as for photons.
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

Observing the Wave Nature of Electrons

IF an electron is accelerated from rest at point a to point b through a potential increase 𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 −
𝑉𝑎 , the work done on the electron 𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 𝐾 thus:

De Broglie wavelength of an electron

ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑎

The greater the potential difference, the shorter the wavelength, the angle of reflection is

𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆
A nonrelativistic electron accelerated from rest through a potential difference 𝑉𝑏𝑎 has a wavelength
given by equation below.
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 √2𝑚𝑒𝑉𝑏𝑎

Electron Microscopes use the very small wavelengths of fast-moving electrons to make images with
resolution thousands of times finer than is possible with visible light.

39.2. The Nuclear Atom and Atomic Spectra

Line Spectra
Heated materials emit light, and different materials emit different kinds of light. To analyse we use
grating method.

If light source is hot solid, the spectrum is continuous, if source is heated gas, only certain colours.

Rest page 1310

Rutherford’s Exploration of the Atom.
Page 1311-1313

The Nuclear Atom : The Rutherford scattering experiments show that most of an atom’s mass and all
of its positive charge are concentrated in a tiny, dense nucleus at the center of the atom

39.3. Energy Levels and The Bohr Model of the Atom

Bohr: the energy of an atom can have only certain particular values

Photon Emission and Absorption by Atoms

Certain frequencies hence certain energy levels : E=hf

Energy of emitted photon (initial – final energy)

ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑓 = = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓
𝜆
lowest energy level, is the ground level, all levels higher are excited levels

Electron Waves and the Bohr Model of Hydrogen

The value of n for each orbit is called the principal quantum number.

Quantization of angular momentum

ℎ
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
2𝜋
Radius of nth orbit in the Bohr model (a0 is Bohr Radius)

𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜖0 = 𝑛2 𝑎0
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
Orbital speed in nth orbit in the Bohr model

1 𝑒2
𝑣𝑛 =
𝜖0 2𝑛ℎ

Hydrogen Energy Levels in the Bohr Model

Kinetic energies in the Bohr Model

1 2
1 𝑚𝑒 4
𝐾𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 = 2 2 2
2 𝜖0 8𝑛 ℎ

Potential Energies in the Bohr Model

−1 𝑒 2 −1 𝑚𝑒 4
𝑈𝑛 = = 2
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟𝑛 𝜖0 4𝑛2 ℎ2

Total Energies in the Bohr Model

−1 𝑚𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = 𝐾𝑛 + 𝑈𝑛 =
𝜖02 8𝑛2 ℎ2

Or
 ℎ𝑐𝑅 13.60𝑒𝑉 𝑚𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = − = − , 𝑅 =
𝑛2 𝑛2 8𝜖02 ℎ3 𝑐

R is Rydberg constant.

Atomic Line Spectra and Energy Levels: The energies of atoms are quantized: They can have only
certain definite values, called energy levels. When an atom makes a transition from an energy level
𝐸𝑖 to a lower level 𝐸𝑓 , it emits a photon of energy 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓 . The same photon can be absorbed by an
atom in the lower energy level, which excites the atom to the upper level.
ℎ𝑐
ℎ𝑓 = = 𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓
𝜆
The Bohr Model: In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the permitted values of angular
momentum are integral multiples of ℎ/2𝜋. The integer multiplier n is called the principal quantum
number for the level. The orbital radii are proportional to 𝑛2 . The energy levels of the hydrogen atom
are given by 𝐸𝑛 , where R is the Rydberg constant.
ℎ
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
2𝜋
𝑛2 ℎ2
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜖0 = 𝑛2 𝑎0
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
1 𝑒2
𝑣𝑛 =
𝜖0 2𝑛ℎ
ℎ𝑐𝑅 13.60𝑒𝑉
𝐸𝑛 = − = −
𝑛2 𝑛2
Nuclear Motion and the Reduced Mass of an Atom
Sometimes the measurements differ by 0.1%, this is because the proton and electron orbit about
their common center of mass, we need to take into account the reduced mass 𝑚𝑟 (due to motion)
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑚𝑟 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

39.4. The Laser

Rest page 1324-1327

Ratio of number of atoms in the two states

−𝐸𝑒𝑥
𝑛𝑒𝑥 𝐴𝑒 𝑘𝑡 −𝐸𝑒𝑥 +𝐸𝑔
= −𝐸𝑔 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡
𝑛𝑔
𝐴𝑒 𝑘𝑡
The Laser: The laser operates on the principle of stimulated emission, by which many photons with
identical wavelength and phase are emitted. Laser operation requires a nonequilibrium condition
called a population inversion, in which more atoms are in a higher-energy state than are in lower-
energy state.

39.5. Continuous Spectra

A blackbody = an ideal surface which absorbs all wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.

Stefan-Boltzmann law (intensity of radiation from blackbody)

 𝐼 = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝑊
𝜎 = 5.670373 𝑥 10−8
𝑚2 𝐾 4
This is how much a blackbody radiates, can be used for comparing certain areas.

Wien displacement law

𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 2.90 ∗ 10−3 𝑚𝐾
There is a relationship between radiation emitted from a heated body and its emitted wavelength.

Planck and the Quantum Hypothesis

Ratio of number of oscillators in first excited state
−ℎ𝑓
𝑛1 𝐴𝑒 𝑘𝑡 −ℎ𝑓
= −0 = 𝑒 𝑘𝑡
𝑛0
𝐴𝑒 𝑘𝑡
Planck radiation law

2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2
𝐼(𝜆) = ℎ𝑐
𝜆5 (𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑡 − 1)

With this function and the Stefan Boltzmann law we can calculate the temperature of a heated
blackbody object.

This is a function, with a peak, to calculate a power per unit area, we need to multiply the height
times the width.

Blackbody Radiation: The total radiated intensity (average power radiated per area) from a
blackbody surface is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature T. The quantity 𝜎
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

Stefan-Boltzmann law

𝐼 = 𝜎𝑇 4
Wien displacement law

𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = 2.90 ∗ 10−3 𝑚𝐾
Planck radiation law

2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2
𝐼(𝜆) = ℎ𝑐
𝜆5 (𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑡 − 1)

39.6. The Uncertainty Principle Revisited

The same uncertainty consideration that apply to photons also apply to particles such as electrons.
The uncertainty Δ𝐸 in the energy of a state that is occupied for a time Δ𝑡 is given by equation below
ℏ ℎ
∆𝑡∆𝐸 ≥ =
2 4𝜋