MOVING CHARGES

AND
MAGNETISM
(PART 1)
 INTRODUCTION
•

• During a lecture demonstration in the summer of 1820, Danish physicist Hans

Christian Oersted noticed that a current in a straight wire caused a noticeable
deflection in a nearby magnetic compass needle.
• He found that the alignment of the needle is tangential to an imaginary circle
which has the straight wire as its centre and has its plane perpendicular to the
wire.
• Reversing the direction of the current reverses the orientation of the needle .
• The deflection increases on increasing the current or bringing the needle closer
to the wire.
• Oersted concluded that moving charges or currents produced a magnetic field in
the surrounding space.
In this chapter, we will see how magnetic field exerts forces on
moving charged particles, like electrons, protons, and current-carrying
wires. We shall also learn how currents produce magnetic fields. We
shall see how particles can be accelerated to very high energies in a
cyclotron. We shall study how currents and voltages are detected by a
galvanometer.

In this and subsequent Chapter on magnetism, we adopt the following

convention:
A current or a field (electric or magnetic) emerging out of the plane of
the paper is depicted by a dot (.).
A current or a field going into the plane of the paper is depicted by a
cross (⊗ ).

 A dot appears like the tip of an arrow pointed at you, a cross is like
the feathered tail of an arrow moving away from you.
 LORENTZ FORCE
 Assume that there is a point charge q moving with a velocity v and located at r at a
given time t in presence of both the electric field E (r) and the magnetic field B (r).
 The force on an electric charge q due to both of them can be written as

 It is called the Lorentz force.

 (i) It depends on q, v and B (charge of the particle, the velocity and the magnetic field).
Force on a negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge.

(ii) The magnetic force F = q [ v × B ] includes a vector product of velocity and

magnetic field. The vector product makes the force due to magnetic field vanish
(becomes zero) if velocity and magnetic field are parallel or anti-parallel. Its direction
is given by the screw rule or right hand rule for vector (or cross) product.

(iii) The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (as then |v|= 0). Only a
moving charge feels the magnetic force.
 Definition of B:
From Lorentz Magnetic Force, we have,
F = q [ v × B ] = q v B Sinθ
If q = 1C, v = 1m/s2 , θ = 900 , then ,
F=B
Magnetic field strength is numerically equal to the force experienced by a 1C charge
moving with velocity of 1m/s in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field.
 The unit of B is Newton second / (coulomb metre) This unit is called tesla (T)
• Tesla is a rather large unit. A smaller unit (non-S.I) called gauss (1G=10 –4 T) is also
often used. The earth’s magnetic field is about 3.6 × 10 –5 T
 Force on a Current-carrying Conductor in a Uniform
Magnetic Field
Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and lengthl.
Let the number density of these mobile charge carriers in it be n. Then the total number of mobile
charge carriers in it is nlA.
For a steady current I in this conducting rod, we assume that each mobile carrier has an average drift
velocity vd .
In the presence of an external magnetic field B, the force on these carriers is:

where q is the value of the charge on a carrier.

nq vd is = current density j & |(nq vd)|A is = current I

where l is a vector of magnitude l , the length of the rod, and with a direction identical to the current
I.
Equation (2) holds for a straight rod. In this equation, B is the external magnetic field (It is not the field
produced by the current-carrying rod).
 If the wire has an arbitrary shape we can calculate the Lorentz force on it by considering it as a
collection of linear strips dlj and summing

This summation can be converted to an integral in most cases.

 MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN
MAGNETIC FIELD

Note: force on a particle does work if the force has a component along (or opposed to) the
direction of motion of the particle.
When a charge moves in a magnetic field, the magnetic force is perpendicular to the velocity of
the particle.
So no work is done and no change in the magnitude of the velocity is produced (though the
direction of momentum may be changed)
Let us consider motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field.
CASE 1 : v perpendicular to B

The particle will describe a circle if v and B are perpendicular to each other since the
perpendicular force, q (v × B), acts as a centripetal force and produces a circular motion
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
CASE 2: If v has a component along B and perpendicular to B

The component of v along B remains unchanged as the motion along the

magnetic field will not be affected by the magnetic field but produces linear
displacement. The component of v perpendicular to B makes the charge move
in a circular path.
Hence the charge describes a helical motion.
If the velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field B, the magnetic force F B is
perpendicular to both vFandB =B
mvand
2
provides the necessary centripetal force.

r (1)
But ,

FB = q v B ( From Lorentz magnetic force) (2)

Equating the two expressions of FB, we get,

mv2 = q v B
r
 r = mv
Bq
for the radius of the circle described by the charged particle.
The larger the momentum, the larger is the radius and bigger the circle
described.
If ω is the angular frequency, then,
v=ωr
So, ω = 2π ν = q B/m
Hence ω is independent of the velocity or energy. Here ν is frequency of
rotation.
Time taken for one revolution is T= 2π/ ω ≡ 1/ ν

If there is a component of the velocity parallel to the magnetic field (denoted by v II ),

the path of the particle is helical in nature.

The distance moved along the magnetic field in one rotation is called pitch p.
p = v||T = 2πm v|| / q B

The radius of the circular component of motion is called the radius of the helix.
 MOTION IN COMBINED ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
• A charge q moving with velocity v in presence of both electric and magnetic fields
experiences a force given by

• Let electric and magnetic fields be perpendicular to each other ( crossed fields) and also
perpendicular to the velocity of the particle as shown in the figure.

• If the value of E and B are adjusted such that magnitudes of the two forces (F E and FB) are
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
• Then, the total force acting on the charge is zero.
• Under this condition, the charge will move in the fields undeflected.

• This condition can be used to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a beam
containing charges moving with different speeds (irrespective of their charge and mass).
The crossed E and B fields, therefore, serve as a velocity selector.
 CYCLOTRON
• The cyclotron is a machine to accelerate charged particles or ions to high
energies.
• The cyclotron uses crossed electric and magnetic fields to increase the energy of
charged particles.
• Cyclotron uses the fact that the frequency of revolution of the charged particle
in a magnetic field is independent of its energy.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF CYCLOTRON
MAXIMUM KINETIC ENERGY OF
POSITIVE CHARGES
Maximum Energy of the Particle:
Kinetic Energy of the charged particle is
Bqr B 2 q 2 r2
K.E. = ½ m v = ½ m ( m
2 )2 =½
m
Maximum Kinetic Energy of the charged particle is when r = R (radius of the D’s).

K.E. B 2 q2 R 2
max =½ m
The expressions for Time period and Cyclotron frequency only when
m remains constant. (Other quantities are already constant.)
But m varies with v according to m0
m=
Einstein’s Relativistic Principle as per [1 – (v2 / c2)]½
If frequency is varied in synchronisation with the variation of mass of the
charged particle (by maintaining B as constant) to have resonance, then the
cyclotron is called synchro – cyclotron.
If magnetic field is varied in synchronisation with the variation of mass of the
charged particle (by maintaining f as constant) to have resonance, then the
cyclotron is called isochronous – cyclotron.
NOTE: Cyclotron can not be used for accelerating neutral particles. Electrons can not
be accelerated because they gain speed very quickly due to their lighter mass and go
out of phase with alternating e.m.f. and get lost within the dees.
 BIOT – SAVART LAW
• All magnetic fields are produced due to currents (or moving charges) and due to
intrinsic magnetic moments of particles.
• The relation between current and the magnetic field it produces is given by Biot-
Savart’s law.
• The figure shows a finite conductor XY carrying current I.

Let,
dl – be an infinitesimal element of the conductor.
dB – magnetic field due to this element at observation point P
r- distance of P from dl
θ- the angle between dl and the displacement vector r.
Then according to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of the magnetic field dB is proportional
to the current I, the element length |dl|, and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance r. Direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane containing dl and r.
In vector notation,
 Biot – Savart Law can be given as ,

µ0 = 10-7 Tm /A
4π
µ0 is the permeability of free space (or vacuum).
Similarities between Biot – Savart Law and Coulomb’s Law:
 Both are long range, since both depend inversely on the square of distance from the
source to the point of interest.
 The principle of superposition applies to both fields.

Differences between Biot – Savart Law and Coulomb’s Law:

• The electrostatic field is produced by a scalar source, namely, the electric charge. The
magnetic field is produced by a vector source I dl.
• The electrostatic field is along the displacement vector joining the source and the field
point. The magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane containing the displacement
vector r and the current element I dl.
• There is an angle dependence in the Biot-Savart law which is not present in the
electrostatic case.
 RELATION BETWEEN μ0 & ε0

• μ0 is permeability of free space

• ε0 is permittivity of free space
• c is speed of light in vacuum

• Hence c = 1/ (√μ0ε0 )
• Since the speed of light in vacuum is constant, the product
μ0ε0 is fixed in magnitude.
 Magnetic Field due to a Circular Loop carrying current:
1) At a point on the axial line:

C dl X dB cosФ dB
90° r
Ф
a
Y
Ф dB sinФ
O x Ф
P dB sinФ
I I
Ф

X’ Y’
dB cosФ dB
D
dl
The plane of the coil is considered perpendicular to the
plane of the diagram such that the direction of magnetic
field can be visualized on the plane of the diagram.
At C and D current elements XY and X’Y’ are considered
such that current at C emerges out and at D enters into
the plane of the diagram.
 µ0 I dl sin θ µ0 I dl
dB = or dB =
4π 4π r2
r2
The angle θ between dl and r is 90° and since sin 90°= 1

The semi-vertical angle made by r to the loop is Ф and the angle between r
and dB is 90° . Therefore, the angle between vertical axis and dB is also Ф.

dB is resolved into components dB cosФ and dB sinФ .

Due to diametrically opposite current elements, cosФ components are always
opposite to each other and hence they cancel out each other.
SinФ components due to all current elements dl get added up along the same
direction (in the direction away from the loop).

µ0 I dl sinФ µ0 I (2πa) a
B = ∫dB sin Ф = ∫ or B=
4π r 2 4π (a2 + x2) (a2 + x2)½

µ 0 I a2
(µ 0 , I, a, sinФ are constants, ∫dl = 2πa and r & sinФ are
B= replaced with measurable and constant values.)
2(a2 + x2)3/2
 Special Cases: µ0 I
B=
2a
i) At the centre O, x = 0. B

ii) If the observation point is far away

from the coil, then a << x. So, a2 can be
in comparison with x2.
neglected
µ I a2 x 0 x
B= 0 3
2x

Different views of direction of current and magnetic field due to circular loop of
a coil:
I

B
B B
I I

I of e
h e p lane to t he plan
ft In
Out o er
r of pap
pape
2) B at the centre of the loop:
dl
The plane of the coil is lying on the plane a I
90°
of the diagram and the direction of current
is clockwise such that the direction of O
magnetic field is perpendicular and into x
dB
the plane. I

µ0 I dl sin θ µ0 I dl The angle θ between dl and a is

dB = dB = 90° because the radius of the
4π 4π a2 loop is very small and since sin
a2
90°= 1
B = ∫dB = ∫ µ0 I dl
4π a2
µ0 I B
B=
2a

(µ0 , I, a are constants and ∫dl = 2πa )

0 a