EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

MAGNETOSTATICS
(Static Magnetic field)

An electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary charges.

If charges move with constant velocity, a direct / steady current (DC) is produced.
This current flow causes a static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field which does not change
with time.
That is, a magnetostatic field is produced by a constant current flow (or direct current).

Magnetostatics → Static magnetic field, Field does not change with time

Sources of Static/Steady magnetic field

1. Permanent magnetic
2. Direct current (charges move with constant velocity)
3. An electric field changing linearly with time.

Source of Electrostatic field → static or stationary charges

Source of Magnetostatic field → charges moving with uniform velocity

Thus, Source of Electromagnetic Fields (EM) → Electric Charges (at rest or in motion)
Basic electrical quantity → Charge

Charges stationary → Electrostatic electric field

Charge motion constant → Steady current [Time-invariant (DC) current]

→ Magnetostatic field
→ Static/Steady electric field

Charge accelerates (motion not constant) → Time-varying current (AC)

→ Time-varying electric field
→ Time-varying magnetic field

Time-varying magnetic field (charge accelerates)

→ Time-varying electric field (in general)

Applications : The working principle of motors, generators, ammeters, voltmeters,

galvanometers, solenoids, transformers, microphones, compasses, telephone bell ringers,
television focusing controls, advertising displays, magnetically levitated high-speed vehicles,
memory stores, magnetic separators, cyclotrons, plasmas, motors, magnetohydrodynamic
generators and so on, involve magnetic phenomena.
The development of these devices requires the knowledge of Magnetostatics.

Class Note by Santanu Das 1

 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

FORCE Due to MAGNETIC FIELDS

A magnetic field can exert force on charged particles and current elements. This force is called
magnetic force. This force can be
(a) on a moving charged particle in a B field,
(b) on a current element in an external B field,
or (c) between two current elements.

[B = Magnetic flux density, H = Magnetic field, B = H]

Applications: Such a study is important to problems on electrical devices such as ammeters,

voltmeters, galvanometers, cyclotrons, plasmas, motors, and magnetohydrodynamic
generators.

A. Force on a Charged Particle

The electric force Fe exerted on a stationary or moving electric charge Q in an electric field
is given by Coulomb’s experimental law and is related to electric field intensity E as

Fe = Q E → This shows that if Q is positive, Fe and E have the same direction.

A magnetic field can only apply force on a moving charge (not on charges at rest).

• Effect of Magnetic Field on Moving Charge

From experiments, it is found that the magnetic force

Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity
v in a magnetic field of flux density B is

Fm = Q v  B
or
Fm = Q v B sin  an

 = angle between v and B

an = unit vector in the direction of Fm

This force is known as Lorentz force after Hendrik Lorentz (1853-1928), who first applied the
equation.
This Fm is Perpendicular to both v and B; normal to the plane formed by v and B.
Hence, this force is a Deflecting (side way) force.

Right-hand Rule or Right-handed Screw Rule : The direction of Fm can be determined by

the right-hand rule or right-handed screw rule.

Right-hand Rule : If the fingers of the right hand rotate from v to B, then the thumb indicates
the direction of Fm.

Right-handed Screw Rule : If we rotate (turn) v vector into B by the right-handed screw, the
direction of the advancement of a right-handed screw gives the direction of Fm.

Class Note by Santanu Das 2

 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

• Force in Both E and B

For a moving charge Q in the presence of both electric field E and magnetic field of flux
density B, the total force on the charge is
F = Fe + Fm or F = Q (E + v  B)
This total force is also known as Lorentz Force.
Force on a Charged Particle
State of Particle E Field B field Combined E & B Fields
Stationary QE -- QE
Moving QE Q (v  B) Q (E + v  B)

B. Force on a Current Element (I dl)

If a current I flows through an element of length dl, Current element = I dl

dQ dl
I dl can be written as Id l = d l = dQ = dQ v
dt dt
Hence, I dl = dQ v

This shows that a charge dQ moving with velocity v (thereby producing convection current
element dQ v) is equivalent to a conduction current element I dl.
Thus, the force on a current element I dl in a magnetic field of flux
density B is
dF = dQ v  B = I dl  B
Hence, dF = I dl  B
Thus, the Force on a current element is normal to the plane
containing the element and B.

• Force on a Current Carrying Wire

If the current I is through a closed path L or circuit, the force on the circuit

𝐅 = ∫ d𝐅 = ∮ I d𝐥 × 𝐁
L

For a straight conductor in a uniform magnetic field, F = IL  B

As the direction of dl (and hence L here) is determined by the direction of current, hence, F
can be written as
F = IL  B = L I  B
Class Note by Santanu Das 3
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

The magnitude F = BIL sin 

 → angle between the direction of the current flow (as I is flowing in the same direction of L)
and the direction of the magnetic flux density.

• Effects of a MAGNET on a Current-carrying Wire

If a wire is placed in the uniform field of a permanent magnet, there will be a force on the wire
as soon as the switch is closed and the current flows.
This force is basic to the operation of electric motors and is called the Motor force.

The force on the wire with current I is given by F=LIB

and its direction can be found from LB.

where L =length of wire in magnetic field (WIDTH of POLE Pieces),

not the actual physical length of the wire as the force is applied to that part of the
wire which is in the field.

The direction of this force on the wire can also be found diagrammatically as follows:
The inward current of the wire produces a clockwise magnetic field (B). It reinforces
(strengthens) the magnet’s field B above the wire, It weakens (opposes) B below the wire.

If we now imagine that the resultant field lines are like stretched rubber bands, the force on the
wire is downward (from higher field strength to lower field strength).
Class Note by Santanu Das 4
 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

HALL EFFECT / HALL VOLTAGE

Semiconductors (P-type & N-type)

There is no net charge within a p-type or n-type semiconductor. The centers of gravity of the
positive and negative charges coincide and the material becomes neutral.

A semiconductor is placed in a Magnetic field B while a Current is flowing.

• Due to Current flow, charges (electrons / holes) are in motion.
• The magnetic field exerts magnetic force [Fm = Q v  B] on electrons (n-type) or holes
(p-type).
• This force tends to shift position (center of gravity) of electrons or holes.
• It produces a small displacement between centers of gravity of positive and negative
charges.
• Charge separation appears in a direction perpendicular to both magnetic field & velocity
of charges.
• The result of charge separation appears as a potential difference (voltage) across the
semiconductor sample.

This voltage or potential difference is known as the Hall Voltage, and the effect or
phenomenon itself is called the Hall Effect.

Method of Determining
Whether a Given Semiconductor is N-type or P-type.

When a current I flows in a flat semiconductor slab with magnetic field B normal to the slab,
the charge carriers experience a force perpendicular to both B and v.

If the material is an N-type semiconductor, the charge carriers are electrons and for a P-type
material the charge carriers are holes. Through metallic electrodes, the carries are only negative
charges (electrons).

Assume equal currents (I) are directed into each of the materials in the –ve x-direction.

Class Note by Santanu Das 5

 EM Theory & Radio Wave Propagation

Case-I: P-type

➢ Positive charges (holes) providing I move in –ve x-direction (Fig.a),

➢ B is in the z-direction,
➢ v is in the –ve x direction,
➢ Q (holes) is positive, the magnetic force Fm (= Q v  B) is in the +y-direction.

Thus, the positive charges move (shift) to the right in the direction of Fm.
A voltmeter with +ve terminal connected to right edge gives +ve voltage difference (Hall
Voltage) across the slab.

Case-II: N-type

➢ Negative charges (electrons) providing I move in +ve x-direction (Fig.b),

➢ B is in the z-direction,
➢ v is in the +ve x direction,
➢ Q (electrons) is negative, the magnetic force Fm (= Q v  B) is in the +y-direction.

Thus, the negative charges move (shift) to the right in the direction of Fm.
A voltmeter with +ve terminal connected to right edge gives –ve voltage difference (Hall
Voltage) across the slab.

Thus, the two cases (holes & electrons in semiconductors) are distinguished by oppositely
directed Hall Voltages. i.e., by the sign of Hall Voltages.
This is one method of determining whether a given semiconductor is N-type or P-type.

Class Note by Santanu Das 6