UNIT-V Semiconductor Devices

UNIT V – SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Hall Effect and its applications

The appearance of a transverse electromotive force when a current-carrying metallic strip is

placed in a magnetic field is called Hall effect.

When a conducting strip carrying current is placed in a magnetic field which is perpendicular to the
direction of current, then due to the magnetic force, the free electrons get accumulated on one side
of the conductor along its length. This produces a transverse electric field (called Hall electric field)
in the conductor which opposes the magnetic force on the electrons.

The figure given below shows a copper strip of width ‘d’, thickness ‘t’ and carrying current ‘i’ along
the +ve x-axis. The charge carriers in copper i.e., electrons drift with a speed ‘vd’ along the –ve x-
axis (direction opposite to current). This strip is placed in an external magnetic field ‘B’ which is
directed along the +ve z-axis. A magnetic deflecting force FB = q(vd x B) will act on each drifting
electron, pushing it towards the lower surface of the strip in the xz-plane.

- EH
(+ve y-axis)
B FE

i i
EH Current, i
vd
d
(+ve x-axis)
t
Magnetic FB
field, B electron

(+ve z-axis) 3D view 2D view of XY Plane

After some time, electrons pile up on the lower surface of the strip, leaving uncompensated positive
charges in fixed positions on the upper surface of the strip as shown in the figure. The separation of
positive and negative charges produces an electric field EH (called Hall electric field) within the
strip, pointing from top to bottom. This electric field exerts an electric force FE on each electron,
tending to push it to the top. Eventually an equilibrium develops in which FE = FB. The drifting
electrons then move along the strip towards the –ve x-axis with velocity vd, with no further
collection of electrons on the lower surface of the strip and thus no further increase in the electric
field E occurs.

A Hall potential difference VH of magnitude VH = EHd ………………………………..………..(1)

is associated with the electric field across the strip width ‘d’. By connecting a voltmeter across the
width, we can measure the potential difference between the two edges of the strip and thereby
identify the edge which is at a higher potential.
When FE = FB, we get, eEH = evdB or vd = EH/B ………………………...……(2)

The drift speed is given by, vd = J / (ne) = i / neA ………………………………………..………..(3)

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where J ( = i /A) is the current density in the strip, A (= t x d) is the cross-sectional area of the strip,
and n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume.

Substituting for EH with equation (1) in equation (2) we obtain, vd = EH/B = VH / (Bd)…………..(4)

Substituting for vd with equation (4) in equation (3) we obtain, VH / (Bd) = i / (neA)

or, n = (Bid) / (VHeA) or, n = (Bi) / (VH t e) ……………………………..…………………(5)

where t (= A / d) is the thickness of the strip. With equation (5), the number of charge carriers per
unit volume of the conductor can be determined by knowing the other measurable quantities B, i,
VH and t.

Hall coefficient (RH)

On comparing equations (2) and (3), we get, EH / B = J / (ne) or 1 / ne = EH / JB

The quantity 1/ne (for electron) or in general 1/nq (for a charged particle) is called the Hall
coefficient RH and it is defined as the ratio of the Hall electric field (EH) to the product of the
current density(J) and magnetic field(B).

RH = 1/nq = EH / (JB) ( Hall co-efficient)

Applications of Hall effect

1. Determination of nature of charge carrier (and thereby the type of semiconductor): For an
n-type semiconductor the Hall coefficient is negative whereas for a p-type semiconductor it is
positive. Thus, the sign of the Hall coefficient can be used to determine whether a given
semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

2. Calculation of carrier concentration: Once the Hall coefficient is measured, the carrier
concentration n can be obtained from the relation n = 1 / eRH. Directly n can be obtained by
using equation (5), n = (Bi) / (VH t e)

3. Determination of mobility: If the conduction is due to one type of carriers, for example
electrons, we have  = nee
i.e., e =  / ne =− RH
Thus, by measuring the conductivity and Hall coefficient of a sample, the mobility of the charge
carriers can be calculated.

4. Measurement of magnetic flux density: Using a semiconductor sample of known Hall

coefficient the magnetic flux density can be measured from the relation
B = VH t / iRH.

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Magnetoresistance

Magnetoresistance is the property of a material to change the value of its electrical resistance when
an external magnetic field is applied to it. This effect was first discovered by William Thomson
(more commonly known as Lord Kelvin) in 1856.

In Hall effect, it is seen that when a current carrying conducting strip is placed in a perpendicular
magnetic field, the drifting conduction electrons are subjected to both the electric (FE) and magnetic
(FB) forces. If FE = FB, the charge carriers neither move along the direction of electric force nor
along the direction of magnetic force but along the applied field direction. However, it is observed
that the drift velocity of all the charge carriers is not the same, i.e., all the charge carriers do not
move with the same velocity. This results in deviated trajectories of charge carriers, i.e., they no
longer move along the applied field. Consequently, the number of collisions increase, and the mean
free path of carriers decreases effectively and the resistivity and resistance of the sample increases.
As the applied magnetic field is increased the trajectories of the charge carriers are more deviated
which increases the magnetoresistance further.

The quantity called "magnetoresistivity" is defined as the fractional change in resistivity due to the
application of a magnetic field. That is, magnetoresistivity =  /0, where  is the change in
resistivity and 0 is the zero-field resistivity. The magnetic field dependence of magnetoresistivity is
given by
  RH2 B 2
=
o o 2

where, RH is the Hall co-efficient, B is the applied magnetic flux density and the parameter β is
called the "coefficient of magnetoresistivity". β depends on the scattering mechanisms and mean
free time of the charge carriers.

Magnetoresistance provides a useful means for designing magnetic field sensors, which are used
to read data in hard disk drives. This effect in materials was used in the recording industry to
realize the magnetic field emanating from the written information on the media.

P-N Junction Diode and junction layer formation

A PN junction diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device that allows electric current in only one
direction and blocks the current in the reverse direction. It is a single semiconductor crystal that has
been selectively doped so that one region is n-type material, and the adjacent region is p-type
material. We assume, for simplicity that a p-type semiconductor kept in contact with a n-type
semiconductor, so that the transition from one region to the other is perfectly sharp and results in a
p-n junction. The most important feature of a p-n junction is its ability to conduct current in one
direction only.

Whenever a junction is formed

a. A thin depletion region or space charge region develops on both sides of the junction and its
thickness is about 10-6m.
b. A barrier potential or junction potential (V0) is developed across the junction.

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The formation of depletion layer takes place as follows
1. There is a difference in concentration of holes and electrons in p-type and n-type material.
2. Due to this concentration difference, there is a tendency for majority carriers to travel from high
concentration region to low concentration region. This is known as diffusion.
3. Consequently, holes diffuse from p-type material to n-type
material and electrons diffuse from n-type material to p-type
material. The motion of both the electrons and the holes
contribute to a diffusion current Idiff, conventionally directed
from left to right.
4. This recombination of mobile charge carriers leaves behind
immobile ions on either side of the junction i.e., negative ions on
p-side and positive ions on n-side.
5. A narrow region having immobile ions is formed on either side
d≈1μm
of the junction. This region is known as depletion region or
space charge region.
V0
6. Once depletion region is formed, there is no further movement of
majority charge carriers. A barrier is formed at the junction,
which stops the movement of majority carriers. This is known as
potential barrier or contact potential. Its value is 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si.
7. Although the barrier potential stops the movement of majority carriers, the minority carriers
(holes in n-type and electrons in p-type move across the junction, thereby constituting a drift
current, Idrift, from right to left.
8. In an isolated p-n junction, at equilibrium Idiff = Idrift.

Biasing of pn-junction diode: Applying an external voltage to a pn-junction diode is known as

biasing of the diode. This can be done into two ways
1. Forward bias
2. Reverse bias
Forward bias: When external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the
potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is called forward biasing. Connecting positive
terminal of the battery to p-type and negative terminal to n-type is known as forward biasing. The
different stages are as follows: VF

V0 –VF
1. The applied forward potential establishes an electric field which
acts against the barrier. The resultant field is weakened and hence -+
the height of the barrier is reduced. -+
2. Positive terminal repels the holes in p-type material and negative -+
terminal repels electrons in an n-type material.
3. As forward voltage is slowly increased, at some value, the barrier d < 1 m
potential is eliminated and depletion region becomes very narrow.
4. The junction resistance will become almost zero and low
resistance path is created for the current.
5. Thus, large current flows after the depletion region is eliminated.
V0 –VF
This current is known as forward current and it is given by the
majority carriers only.
6. During the forward biasing condition, the diode acts like a short
circuit and is said to be in on condition.

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Reverse bias. When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that the
potential barrier is increased, it is called reverse biasing. If the p-type material is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and the n-type material to the positive terminal of the battery, then
that type of biasing is known as reverse biasing. The different stages are as follows:
VR
1. The holes in the p-type material are attracted towards the negative V0 +VR
terminal of the battery and electrons in the n-type material are
attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery. - - + +
2. Due to this action, the width of the depletion layer increases. - - + +
Consequently, the barrier potential also increases. - - + +
3. The increased barrier potential prevents the movement of the
majority carriers across the junction. d > 1 m
4. The junction offers very high resistance to the current flow. This is
known as reverse resistance.
5. Due to this very high resistance a small current constituted by
electrons in p-type material and holes in the n-type material flow in
the circuit. This current is by minority carriers and is known as
minority current or leakage current or reverse saturation current. It V0+VR

is of the order of nA for Si and A for Ge.

6. During the reverse biasing condition, the diode acts as an open
circuit and is said to be in off condition.

Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristic of semiconductor diode

The behaviour of the diode can be understood by means of a graph known as V-I characteristics. It
is the graph between the voltage applied across the diode and current flowing through the diode. A
diode has two types of characteristics namely

1. Forward characteristics
2. Reverse characteristics

1. Forward characteristics: The voltage-current (V-I) characteristics for a forward biased p-n
junction diode is known as forward characteristics of the diode. A graph is plotted taking
forward voltage (in volts) on positive x-axis and corresponding forward current (in mA) on
positive y-axis. From the graph the following points are noted:

a. Initially when the applied voltage is zero, no current flows through the circuit.
b. For small values of forward voltage i.e., VF < V0 (barrier potential), the current IF = 0. This is
because V0 opposes and prevents holes from p-region and electrons from n-region to flow
across the junction region.
c. When VF>Vo, a small current flows as shown by path OA of the curve.
d. The forward voltage below which IF = 0 and above which If beings to increase is known as
cut-in or knee or threshold voltage. Its values are equal to 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si.
e. The forward characteristics up to a certain portion is not a straight line. The ratio V/I is not
constant. It fails to obey the ohm’s law and behaves as a non-linear device
f. As VF is further increased, the current increases rapidly as shown by the path AB of the
curve. This is because, once VF exceeds VO, the resistance of the p-n junction reduces.

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2. Reverse characteristics: The voltage-current (V-I) characteristics for a reverse biased p-n
junction diode is known as reverse characteristics of the diode. A graph is plotted taking reverse
voltage (in volts) on negative x-axis and corresponding reverse current (in A) on negative
y-axis. From the graph the following points are noted:

a. As reverse voltage VR is increased from zero, the reverse current IR increases and reaches its
maximum IRS at a small value of VR..
b. When VR is further increased, the reverse current is almost independent of the magnitude of
VR. This current is known as minority current or leakage current or reverse saturation
current, IRS.
c. This current is by the minority carriers namely electrons in the p-type material and holes in
the n-type material.
d. This current depends upon temperature. This current doubles for every 100C rise in
temperature.
e. It is of the order of micro amperes for Ge and nano amperes for Si.
f. When VR is increased beyond a particular voltage then IR increases rapidly. This voltage is
known as reverse breakdown voltage, VRB. Beyond this voltage, the diode is said to be in
the breakdown region.

Reverse Voltage, VR (Volts)

VRB

Reverse Current, IR (A)

IRS
B
Forward Current, IF (mA)

linear response

O non-linear response

Vo
Forward Voltage, VF (Volts)

Forward characteristics Reverse characteristics

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Zener diode

A Zener diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode, which is specifically designed to
operate in the breakdown region of the reverse bias condition. The breakdown voltage can be
fixed as per the desired application by changing the dopant
concentration and other parameters. The circuit symbol of a
Zener diode is as shown in the adjoining diagram.

The volt-ampere (VI) characteristics of the Zener

diode is as shown in the below figure. Under forward
bias, the Zener diode functions like an ordinary diode.
However, it is generally not used in the forward bias
mode. Under reverse bias, the characteristics is
different from that of an ordinary diode. As the reverse
voltage is increased, the reverse current remains
constant till a certain value is reached. At that value of
reverse voltage, there is a sudden increase in the
reverse current. The value of reverse voltage at
which there is an abrupt increase in reverse current
is called zener breakdown voltage or zener voltage
VZ.

The reverse current is due to the movement of thermally generated minority carriers across the
junction and hence the revere current is constant till reverse voltage reaches closer to Zener voltage,
VZ. However, when the reverse voltage reaches VZ, the electric field in the depletion region gets
strong enough to knock out electrons from their valence shell. The valence electrons thus gain
sufficient energy from the strong electric field of the depletion region, break free from the parent
atom, and start moving across the junction leading to a sudden increase in reverse current. This
phenomenon is called Zener breakdown mechanism.
If the reverse voltage is further increased, the free electrons accelerate at high velocities, collide with
other atoms in their path, and knock out more electrons. As a result of these continuous collisions,
many free electrons are generated just like an avalanche. Consequently, the current in the diode
increases rapidly. This phenomenon is called Avalanche breakdown mechanism. Avalanche
breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage greater than 6V.
In the zener region, the voltage across the zener diode remains constant but the current changes
depending on the supply voltage. The zener voltage value depends on the doping levels. Increase
in doping will decrease the zener potential. Zener diodes are available in the range from 2 V to
200 V. Zener diodes are widely used in electronic circuits as voltage regulators, reference
elements, and surge protectors.

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Tunnel diode

It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode that works on the quantum mechanical phenomenon
of tunneling and is capable of very fast operation.

A conventional p-n junction diode has an impurity concentration of about 1 part in 108.
With this order of doping, the width of the depletion layer is of the order of 1 m (10-6 m or
1000 nm) and the potential barrier so produced restrains the flow of electrons from the n region to
the p region and holes from the p region to the n region. If the concentration of impurity atoms
is greatly increased (about 1 part in 103), then the depletion layer becomes very small of the
order of 10 nm and the device characteristics are completely changed. Such a diode was invented
by Japanese scientist Leo Esaki in 1958. It is called Esaki diode or tunnel diode because it
utilizes the phenomenon of tunneling of electrons through the potential barrier of the junction.
Leo Esaki in 1973 received the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the electron tunneling
effect used in these diodes.

Tunneling phenomenon: According to classical mechanics, a particle must have energy at least
equal to the height of the potential barrier to move from one side of the barrier to the other side.
Thus, a particle with an energy E and
situated on the left-hand side of the
potential barrier of height V cannot pass to
the right-hand side of the barrier if E is
less than V (E < V). Accordingly, in a
conventional p-n junction diode, the
charge carriers must have 0.3 eV energy
for Ge and 0.7 eV for Si to overcome the
potential barrier.

However, according to quantum mechanics, there is a small but finite (non-zero) probability of
the subatomic particles (such as electrons) of energy E in penetrating through the potential barrier
V even when they do not possess sufficient energy to overcome the barrier. The probability of
penetrating through the barrier decreases exponentially with the width of the barrier and with the
barrier height. This is the reason why the tunnel diodes are doped heavily so that the width of
the potential barrier becomes extremely small (~ 10 nm). This type of penetration of a
higher potential barrier by subatomic particles is known as tunnel effect.

Circuit symbol: The circuit symbol for a tunnel diode is

as shown in the adjoining figure.

The most common tunnel diodes are usually made from germanium (Ge) or gallium arsenide
(GaAs).

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The Volt-Ampere (V-I) Characteristics: The volt-
ampere characteristic curve of a tunnel diode is quite
different from that of a normal p-n junction diode. The
below figure shows the V-I characteristics of a tunnel
diode when it is forward biased. As soon as a forward
bias is applied, the tunnel diode passes a considerable
current which reaches to its peak value IP (peak point)
at a low voltage VP. As the applied forward voltage is
increased, diode current starts decreasing and achieves a
minimum value IV called Valley current corresponding
to valley voltage VV (valley point). When the forward
voltage is further increased beyond the valley point, the
current increases again, as in any conventional p-n
junction diode.

Working: The operation of the tunnel diode can be understood from its forward current voltage
characteristics as shown in the figure. Forward current in a tunnel diode is the sum of two
components: normal injection current and tunnel current. Normal injection current arises from an
external voltage which reduces the potential barrier across the depletion region and allows current
to flow due to movement of majority carriers in the conduction band.

In a tunnel diode due to heavy doping, the depletion layer is very narrow. It results in a very high
electric field (E = V/d) across the junction and allows carriers in the valence band on one side of
the junction to tunnel through to the conduction band on the other side of the junction without
overcoming the potential barrier. The increase in current from 0 to its peak value IP (at A) at a
forward voltage VP is due to tunneling phenomenon. The normal injection current is negligible at
this value of forward bias.

The application of the forward bias beyond VP, reduces the electric field strength because the
depletion layer becomes less well defined due to diffusion of carriers across the p-n junction.
Consequently, the tunneling current decreases. Thus, current decreases with increase in applied
voltage between the peak point A and the valley point B. It gives rise to a negative slope in the V-
I curve and the tunnel diode exhibits a negative resistance property. If the forward voltage
increases beyond VV, the tunneling effect ceases and current rises because of injection current as
in any ordinary junction diode.

The outstanding features of a tunnel diode are its small physical size, extremely high frequency
response, very low power consumption and very wide temperature range of operation

Applications
• A tunnel diode, having a negative resistance region, will generate power if operated over this
region. Therefore, a tunnel diode can function as an amplifier and an oscillator.
• Since the tunneling mechanism takes place at the speed of light, a tunnel diode is used as a
switching device in computers. It has a switching time of the order of nanoseconds.
• Due to its extremely small capacitance and inductance, a tunnel diode is used as a microwave
oscillator at a frequency of about 10 GHz.

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Direct and indirect band gap of semiconductors

The variation of energy, E with wave number (propagation vector), k called the ‘E-k diagram’ for an
electron moving in a periodic potential of the lattice is as shown below. From the graph we see that
the electron can have energy values only between allowed regions or zones extending from k = -/a
to k = +/a, then from k = -/a to k = -2/a and k = +/a to k = +2/a and so on. At k = ±/a, ±2/a,
±3/a,……there is a break in the energy values called the forbidden region or band.

Energy band

Continuous energies for

a free electron Energy gap or Forbidden band
E = (h2k2) / (82m)

Energy band

Energy gap or Forbidden band

Energy band

k -3/a -2/a -/a 0 +/a +2/a +3/a k

-3/a
Direct band gap semiconductor: In a direct band gap semiconductor, the top (maximum) of the
valence band and the bottom (minimum) of the conduction band occur at the same value of k, as
shown in the adjacent figure
E

In a direct band gap semiconductor, an electron in the Conduction

band
conduction band minimum can fall directly to an
empty state (a hole) in the valence band maximum
while conserving momentum. The energy of the
Eg Photon h = Eg
recombination across the band gap will be emitted in O

the form of a photon of light with energy h = Eg. k

Valence
The time required for recombination of an electron band

and a hole in direct band gap semiconductors is very

less. Due to emission of light photon during
recombination of charge carriers, these are used to fabricate light emitting diodes (LED’s) and laser
diodes. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and Indium phosphide (InP) are some examples of direct band gap
semiconductors.

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Indirect band gap semiconductor: In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the top (maximum) of
the valence band and the bottom (minimum) of the conduction band do not occur at the same value
of k, as shown in the adjacent figure
E Conduction
band
This means that a transition from the conduction band
minimum to valence band maximum in indirect band
gap semiconductor requires a change in k, i.e., an Phonon Ephonon = E
E Trap
Eg
Photon h = Eg - E
electron in conduction band minimum cannot fall Eg-E
directly to the valence band maximum, but has to
k
undergo a change in momentum. This involves the
mediation of the lattice vibration called phonon. Valence
band

An electron in the conduction band can recombine

with a hole in the valence band indirectly through
intermediate states known as traps, often located on impurity sites. An excited electron first makes a
transition to such a state whose energy normally lies in the gap. Then it makes a second transition to
finally recombine with the hole in the valence band. Often one of these transitions is non-radiative
(that is, energy is given off as heat not light).

The indirect process proceeds at a much slower rate. Here there is emission of a phonon along with a
photon. The emission of phonon leads to the rise of temperature of the material. Semiconductors that
have an indirect band gap are inefficient at emitting light. Due to longer life time of charge carriers,
these semiconductors are used to amplify the signals as in the case of diodes and transistors.
Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are well known examples of indirect band gap semiconductors.

Photovoltaic or Solar Cell

Photovoltaic or solar cells are basically PN junction diodes which are used for converting
radiation energy into electrical energy. They work on the principle of ‘photovoltaic effect’.
These cells generate a voltage proportional to electromagnetic radiation intensity and are called
photovoltaic cells because of their voltage generating capability. If they are specially used for
converting solar energy into electrical energy, they are called solar cells.

Selenium and silicon are the most widely used materials for solar cells. Sometimes gallium
arsenide (GaAs), indium arsenide (InAs) and cadmium sulphide (CdS) are also used.

Working: Consider a PN junction diode depicted in the

adjacent figure with a resistive load ‘R’. Even when there
is no bias applied to the diode, an electric field exists in the
space charge region as illustrated in the figure. Incident
photon illumination can generate electron hole pairs in the
space charge region that will be swept out generating photo
current, I in the reverse bias direction as illustrated. The
available output current of such a cell depends upon the
incident light intensity, cell efficiency and on the size of
the active area of the cell. Power conversion efficiency of
single-crystalline solar cells is generally in the range of 10-30 %.

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

+ -
Circuit symbol: The circuit symbol often used for a photovoltaic
cell is given in the adjoining figure.

Construction: The construction and cross-

section of a typical power solar cell is as
shown in the adjacent figure. The surface
layer of P-type material is extremely thin so
that light can penetrate to the junction. The
Ni plated ring around the P-type material is
the positive output terminal and the plating
at the bottom of the N-type material the
negative output terminal.

Open-circuit voltage VOC is the potential that develops

Characteristics: The figure below shows the VI characteristic curve of a solar cell.
across the terminals of the solar cell at zero-current, i.e.,
when the external load resistance is very large, RLOAD = ∞.
Short-circuit current ISC is the current that flows through
the illuminated cell when the voltage across the cell is zero,
i.e., when the external load resistance is zero. ISC is the
maximum current delivered by the solar cell at a given
illumination level and is a function of the PN junction area
collecting the light. The short-circuit current is close to the
photocurrent while the open-circuit voltage is close to the
turn-on voltage of the diode.

The power delivered to the load is equal to the product of the diode voltage and current. Initially
power increases linearly with the diode voltage but then rapidly goes to zero around the turn-on
voltage of the diode. It is of course zero at both extremes of the VI curve and reaches a maximum
(PM) at a single load resistance value. In the above figure, PM is shown as the area of the shaded
rectangle. The maximum power delivered by a solar cell, PM, is the area of the largest rectangle
under the VI curve, i.e., PM = VM x IM

A commonly used parameter that characterizes a solar cell is the fill factor, FF, which is defined as
the ratio of actual maximum obtainable power, PM to the product of the open-circuit voltage,
VOC and short-circuit current, ISC. The Fill Factor (FF) is essentially a measure of quality of the
solar cell.
PM
FF =
VOC I SC
The efficiency () of a solar cell is the ratio of the electrical power it delivers to the load, to the
optical power incident on the cell (PIN). Maximum efficiency is when power delivered to the load
is maximum, PM. The maximum efficiency MAX may be written as
PM V I FF
 MAX = = OC SC
PIN PIN

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Applications:
• Solar cells are extensively used as the source of power in many satellite and space vehicles.
• They are being used for even terrestrial electric power generation.
• They are used as sensors and infrared detectors.

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light emitting diode (LED) is a specially fabricated PN junction diode that emits radiant
energy (usually light energy) when it is forward biased. The operation of a LED is based on
the phenomenon of ‘electroluminescence’, which is the conversion of electrical energy to
light energy.
Working: When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the potential barrier is lowered.
Recombination of conduction band electrons from the N-region and valence band holes from the
P-region takes place as shown in the below figure. Since, free electrons in the conduction band
are at a higher energy level compared to holes in the valence band, their recombination leads to
release of energy equal to band gap energy Eg in the form of heat and light.

In silicon and germanium, this recombination energy is released in the form of heat while in
GaAsP, GaAs and GaP semiconductors, this energy is released in the form of light. The
wavelength of the emitted light is given by  = (hc)/Eg
In Si, Eg=1.1eV, hence,  = (6.6 x 10-34 x 3 x 108)/(1.1 x 1.6 x 10-19) = 11284 x 10-10 m = 11284 Å
which lies in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
In GaAsP Eg=1.9eV, hence,  = (6.6 x 10-34 x 3 x 108)/(1.9x1.6 x 10-19) = 6500 x 10-10m = 6500 Å
which lies in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Thus, by proper choice of band gap and material, radiation of desired wavelength
anode
may be obtained.

Circuit symbol: Circuit symbol for a LED is shown in the adjoining figure. The
arrows indicate the radiation emitted by the diode.
cathode

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UNIT-V Semiconductor Devices
Construction: A cross-sectional view of a
typically diffuse LED is given in the adjacent
figure. At first, a N-type layer is grown on a
substrate and then a P-type layer is deposited
on it by the process of diffusion.
Recombination of charge carriers occurs in the
P-region so this region is required to be kept
at the top. Thus, the P-region becomes the
device surface. The metal anode connections
are made at the outer edges of the P-layer so
as to allow more surface area for the light to
come out. A gold (Au) film is applied to the
substrate bottom to reflect as much as possible of the light towards the surface of the device and
to provide a cathode connection.

Applications:
• LEDs that produce visible radiation find application in numerical displays like watches,
calculators, instrument panels, telephone switch boards etc. A typical seven
segment LED numerical display is shown in the adjacent figure.
• Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarm systems.
• LEDs are used as light sources in optical fiber communication system.
• They are replacing cathode ray tubes in solid state video displays.

Advantages:
• Long lifespan: LEDs have a significantly long lifespan when compared to conventional light
sources. On an average LEDs last for 50,000 to 100,000 operating hours.
• Energy efficient: LEDs are extremely energy efficient and consume very low amounts of power
(upto 90% less power than incandescent bulbs) and hence dramatically reduce power costs.
• Enhanced safety: LEDs offers enhanced safety when compared to conventional light sources in
terms of heat energy emitted. LEDs emit almost no forward heat and are much safer in the event
something goes wrong.
• Small size: LED devices are extremely small ranging from 0.1 to 1 mm2. This feature makes
them adapt to an infinite number of lighting applications.

Photodiode

A photodiode is a special type of PN junction diode that generates current when exposed to
light under reverse biasing. It is also known as a photodetector or photosensor. It operates in
reverse biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy. It works on the principle
of ‘Photoelectric effect’.
The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of this two-terminal
semiconductor device is illuminated then electric current starts flowing through it. Under reverse
biasing a small current constituted by minority carriers (electrons in p-type material and holes in the
n-type material) flows in the circuit. This minority current flows through the device when the certain
reverse potential is applied to it.

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UNIT-V Semiconductor Devices
Photodiode basically operates in two modes:
• Photovoltaic mode: It is also known as zero-bias mode because no external reverse potential is
provided to the device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take place when the device is
exposed to light, similar to what happens in a solar cell.
• Photoconductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the device then it
behaves as a photoconductive device. Here, an increase in depletion width is seen with the
corresponding change in reverse voltage.

Working: In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows through the device that is termed
as dark current. It is called so because this current is totally the result of the flow of minority
carriers and it flows when the device is not exposed to radiation.
The electrons present in the P-region and holes present in N-region are the minority carriers. When a
certain reverse-biased voltage is applied then minority carrier, holes from N-side experiences
repulsive force from the positive potential of the battery. Similarly, the electrons present in the P-
side experience repulsion from the negative potential of the battery. Due to this movement, a very
small reverse current flows through the device known as dark current. Recombination of electrons
and holes occurs at the junction. Since the minority carriers are few in number, once they recombine
across the junction further flow of current is restricted, i.e, the current becomes constant or
saturated.
Now, when the junction of the device is
illuminated with light, electron hole pairs are
produced. Since the diode is reverse biased,
these electrons and holes are pulled away from
the junction (electrons from n side get attracted
towards the positive terminal of the battery and
holes present in the p side get attracted to the
negative terminal of the battery). This
movement then generates high reverse current
through the device. With the increase in the
light intensity, more charge carriers are
generated and flow through the device, thereby
producing a large electric current through the
device.

This current is then used to drive other circuits of the system. Thus, the current through the device
is directly proportional to the intensity of light energy incident on it. Only positive biased potential
can put the device in no current condition in case of the photodiode.
Circuit symbol: The figure below shows the symbolic representation of a photodiode:

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UNIT-V Semiconductor Devices

Construction: The adjacent figure shows the

constructional details of a photodiode. The PN
junction diode is placed inside a glass material. This
is done to order to allow the light energy to pass
through it. As only the junction is exposed to
radiation, the other portion of the glass material is
painted black or is metallised. The overall unit is of
very small dimension nearly about 2.5 mm. It is
noteworthy that the current flowing through the
device is in micro-ampere and is measured through
an ammeter.
Characteristics: The figure below shows the VI
characteristic curve of a photodiode. Here, the vertical
line represents the reverse current flowing through the
device and the horizontal line represents the reverse-
biased potential. The first curve represents the dark
current that generates due to minority carriers in the
absence of light. As we can see in the figure that with
increase in luminous flux the current increases. It is
noteworthy here that, the reverse current does not show a
significant increase with the increase in the reverse
potential.
Advantages:
• It shows a quick response when exposed to light.
• Photodiode offers high operational speed.
• It provides a linear response.
• It is a low-cost device.

Disadvantages:
• It is a temperature-dependent device and shows poor temperature stability.
• When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.

Applications:
• Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.
• Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.
• Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.
• It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until exposure to radiation is
not interrupted, the current flows. As the light energy fails to fall on the device, it sounds the
alarm.

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