DIGITAL ASSIGNMENT

NAME:MD MOSI ZARIF

REG NO:18BEC2031
SUBJECT:OPTOELECTRONICS
FACULTY NAME:MANISH KUMAR
Q1. What is Lorentz Law?
ANS:

Lorentz force, the force exerted on a charged particle q moving with velocity v through
an electric E and magnetic field B. The entire electromagnetic force F on the charged particle is
called the Lorentz force (after the Dutch physicist Hendrik A. Lorentz) and is given
byF = qE + qv × B.
The first term is contributed by the electric field. The second term is the magnetic force and has
a direction perpendicular to both the velocity and the magnetic field. The magnetic force is
proportional to q and to the magnitude of the vector cross product v × B. In terms of the angle ϕ
between v and B, the magnitude of the force equals qvB sin ϕ. An interesting result of the
Lorentz force is the motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field. If v is perpendicular
to B (i.e., with the angle ϕ between v and B of 90°), the particle will follow a circular trajectory
with a radius of r = mv/qB. If the angle ϕ is less than 90°, the particle orbit will be a helix with an
axis parallel to the field lines. If ϕ is zero, there will be no magnetic force on the particle, which
will continue to move undeflected along the field lines. Charged particle
accelerators like cyclotrons make use of the fact that particles move in a circular orbit
when v and B are at right angles. For each revolution, a carefully timed electric field gives the
particles additional kinetic energy, which makes them travel in increasingly larger orbits. When
the particles have acquired the desired energy, they are extracted and used in a number of
different ways, from fundamental studies of the properties of matter to the medical treatment
of cancer.
The magnetic force on a moving charge reveals the sign of the charge carriers in a conductor.
A current flowing from right to left in a conductor can be the result of positive charge carriers
moving from right to left or negative charges moving from left to right, or some combination of
each. When a conductor is placed in a B field perpendicular to the current, the magnetic force on
both types of charge carriers is in the same direction. This force gives rise to a small potential
difference between the sides of the conductor. Known as the Hall effect, this phenomenon
(discovered by the American physicist Edwin H. Hall) results when an electric field is aligned with
the direction of the magnetic force. The Hall effect shows that electrons dominate the conduction
of electricity in copper. In zinc, however, conduction is dominated by the motion of positive
charge carriers. Electrons in zinc that are excited from the valence band leave holes, which are
vacancies (i.e., unfilled levels) that behave like positive charge carriers. The motion of these holes
accounts for most of the conduction of electricity in zinc.
If a wire with a current i is placed in an external magnetic field B, how will the force on the wire
depend on the orientation of the wire? Since a current represents a movement of charges in the
wire, the Lorentz force acts on the moving charges. Because these charges are bound to the
conductor, the magnetic forces on the moving charges are transferred to the wire. The force on
a small length dl of the wire depends on the orientation of the wire with respect to the field. The
magnitude of the force is given by idlB sin ϕ, where ϕ is the angle between B and dl. There is no
force when ϕ = 0 or 180°, both of which correspond to a current along a direction parallel to the
field. The force is at a maximum when the current and field are perpendicular to each other.

Q2. What is Drude Lorentz Law?

ANS:
There are a large number of free electrons in a metal. These electrons are free to move about
the whole volume of the metal like the molecules of a perfect gas in a container. The free
electrons make collisions from time to time with fixed positive ions in the lattice and also
among themselves. We may neglect the collisions between electrons in comparison with the
collisions between electrons and ions cores.In the absence of electric field, the random motion
of free electrons is equally probable in all directions so that current density vector is zero.
When an external electric field is applied, the electrons drift slowly with some average velocity,
known as average drift velocity, in the direction opposite to that of electric field. The drift
velocity of free electrons is superimposed over their random velocity. The continuous solid lines
show a possible random path followed by an electron in the absence of an applied field. The
dashed lines show the electron path in the presence of the electric field E. Note the steady drift
in the direction of -E. The drift velocity is much smaller in magnitude than average random
velocity of free electrons.The average distance transverse by a free electron between two
successive collisions with the positive ions is called mean free path and is denoted by λ.
If an electron of mass m and charge e is placed in an electric in an electric field E, it experiences
an acceleration a given by
a = eE/m.

Let τ be the average time – interval between two successive collisions of an electron with
positive ions.
Increase in drift velocity in time-interval between two successive collisions of an electron with
positive ions.
This drift velocity is reduced to zero at the next collision and again builds up to the value eEτ/m
before suffering another collision and so on.

. : the average drift velocity through the conductor} = Vd = eEτ/2m

Let n be the number of conduction electrons per unit volume.

Current density = J = nevd = ne2 Eτ / 2m

But J = σ = J/E = ne2τ / 2m.

This is the expression for the electrical conductivity of a metal.

Q4. (a) What is evanescent field?

ANS:
In electromagnetics, an evanescent field, or evanescent wave, is an oscillating electric and/or
magnetic field that does not propagate as an electromagnetic wave but whose energy is
spatially concentrated in the vicinity of the source (oscillating charges and currents). Even when
there is a propagating electromagnetic wave produced (e.g., by a transmitting antenna), one
can still identify as an evanescent field the component of the electric or magnetic field that
cannot be attributed to the propagating wave observed at a distance of many wavelengths
(such as the far field of a transmitting antenna).

A hallmark of an evanescent field is that there is no net energy flow in that region. Since the net
flow of electromagnetic energy is given by the average Pointing vector, this means that the
Poynting vector in these regions, as averaged over a complete oscillation cycle, is zero

(b) How it is used for sensing?

ANS:
In optics and acoustics, evanescent waves are formed when waves traveling in a medium
undergo total internal reflection at its boundary because they strike it at an angle greater than
the so-called critical angle.[3][4] The physical explanation for the existence of the evanescent
wave is that the electric and magnetic fields (or pressure gradients, in the case of acoustical
waves) cannot be discontinuous at a boundary, as would be the case if there was no evanescent
wave field. In quantum mechanics, the physical explanation is exactly analogous—
the Schrödinger wave-function representing particle motion normal to the boundary cannot be
discontinuous at the boundary.Electromagnetic evanescent waves have been used to exert
optical radiation pressure on small particles to trap them for experimentation, or to cool them
to very low temperatures, and to illuminate very small objects such as biological cells or single
protein and DNA molecules for microscopy (as in the total internal reflection fluorescence
microscope). The evanescent wave from an optical fiber can be used in a gas sensor, and
evanescent waves figure in the infrared spectroscopy technique known as attenuated total
reflectance.In electrical engineering, evanescent waves are found in the near-field region within
one third of a wavelength of any radio antenna. During normal operation, an antenna emits
electromagnetic fields into the surrounding nearfield region, and a portion of the field energy is
reabsorbed, while the remainder is radiated as EM waves.Recently, a graphene-based Bragg
grating (one-dimensional photonic crystal) has been fabricated and demonstrated its
competence for excitation of surface electromagnetic waves in the periodic structure using
a prism coupling technique.[5]In microscopy, systems that capture the information contained in
evanescent waves can be used to create super-resolution images. Matter radiates both
propagating and evanescent electromagnetic waves. Conventional optical systems capture only
the information in the propagating waves and hence are subject to the diffraction limit.
Systems that capture the information contained in evanescent waves, such as
the superlens and near field scanning optical microscopy, can overcome the diffraction limit;
however these systems are then limited by the system's ability to accurately capture the
evanescent waves.

(c) How sensing of any physical phenomena is related to Refractive Index of a

material
ANS:
Many fiber-optic sensors for refractive index (RI) sensing have been developed due to some
advantages such as small size, high sensitivity, light weight, and immunity to external
electromagnetic interference. Various fabrication methods for fiber-based RI sensors have been
reported in the literature [1], including surface plasmon resonance (SPR) [2, 3], evanescent field
[4], fiber gratings [5, 6], and optical fiber interferometry [7]. However, the sensitivity of the
traditional sensing techniques needs to be improved in practical applications. Iadicicco et al. [5]
reported an etched fiber Bragg grating RI measurement, while etching can also be applied to a
long period of grating to increase sensitivity to external refractive indices [6]. Optical fiber
sensors based on evanescent wave generate a strong interaction between the guided wave and
the surrounding materials. However, most of the reported sensors showed a low-sensitivity or
low-detection range. To overcome this problem, we proposed a D-shaped optical fiber coated
with a high refractive index titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanofilm to enhance the sensitivity and to
extend the detection range of the sensor.

(d) What are different optical techniques used for sensing for various
phenomenas?
ANS:
Means of sensing
In this category, sensors are generally based either on measuring an intensity change in one or
more light beams or on looking at phase changes in the light beams by causing them to interact
or interfere with one another. Thus sensors in this category are termed either intensity
sensors or interferometric sensors. Techniques used in the case of intensity sensors include light
scattering (both Rayleigh and Raman), spectral transmission changes (i.e., simple attenuation of
transmitted light due to absorption), microbending or radiative losses, reflectance changes, and
changes in the modal properties of the fiber. Interferometric sensors have been demonstrated
based upon the magneto-optic, the laser-Doppler, or the Sagnac effects, to name a few
Extent of sensing
This category is based on whether sensors operate only at a single point or over a distribution
of points. Thus, sensors in this category are termed either point sensors or distributed sensors.
In the case of a point sensor, the transducer may be at the end of a fiber the sole purpose of
which is to bring a light beam to and from the transducer. Examples of this sensor type are
interferometers bonded to the ends of fibers to measure temperature and pressure. In the case
of a distributed sensor, as the name implies, sensing is performed all along the fiber length.
Examples of this sensor type are fiber Bragg gratings distributed along a fiber length to measure
strain or temperature.

Q5. What is Plasmon? How it is created? How it is useful for conventional sensing
& Compare how it is beneficial in conventional sensing
ANS:
Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance (LSPR) sensors have potential applications in essential
and important areas such as bio-sensor technology, especially in medical applications and gas
sensors in environmental monitoring applications. Figure of Merit (FOM) and Sensitivity (S)
measurements are two ways to assess the performance of an LSPR sensor. However, LSPR
sensors suffer low FOM compared to the conventional Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) sensor
due to high losses resulting from radiative damping of LSPs waves. Different methodologies
have been utilized to enhance the performance of LSPR sensors, including various geometrical
and material parameters, plasmonic wave coupling from different structures, and integration of
noble metals with graphene, which is the focus of this report. Recent studies of metal-graphene
hybrid plasmonic systems have shown its capability of promoting the performance of the LSPR
sensor to a level that enhances its chance for commercialization. In this review, fundamental
physics, the operation principle, and performance assessment of the LSPR sensor are presented
followed by a discussion of plasmonic materials and a summary of methods used to optimize
the sensor’s performance. A focused review on metal-graphene hybrid nanostructure and a
discussion of its role in promoting the performance of the LSPR sensor follow.

Q6. To know how the data sheets of Laser and LED are used , Inlist the different
Parameters and it’s definition.
ANS:
the most visible type of diode, that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either visible light at
different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type
light when a forward current is passed through them.
The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a
specialised type of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN
junction diode. This means that an LED will pass current in its forward direction but
block the flow of current in the reverse direction.
Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material and depending on the semiconductor material used and the
amount of doping, when forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a particular
spectral wavelength.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band
recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce
photons which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a
reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing
a coloured light output.

LED Construction
Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting
Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy.The
construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a normal signal
diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy
resin hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both vibration
and shock.Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the
epoxy resin body is constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted by the
junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to which the diode is
attached and are focused upwards through the domed top of the LED, which itself acts
like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This is why the emitted light appears to be
brightest at the top of the LED.However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical
shaped dome for their epoxy shell. Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or
cylindrical shaped construction that has a flat surface on top or their body is shaped into
a bar or arrow. Generally, all LED’s are manufactured with two legs protruding from the
bottom of the body.Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – )
terminal identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead being
shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead is longer than the cathode (k).