CHAPTER 29: MAGNETIC FIELDS

Quick Introduction

Many historians of science believe that the compass, which uses a magnetic
needle, was used in China as early as the 13th century BC, its invention
being of Arabic or Indian origin. The early Greeks knew about magnetism
as early as 800 BC. They discovered that the stone magnetite (Fe 3O4) attracts
pieces of iron. Legend ascribes the name magnetite to the shepherd Magnes,
the nails of whose shoes and the tip of whose staff stuck fast to chunks of
magnetite while he pastured his flocks. In 1269, Pierre de Maricourt
of France found that the directions of a needle near a spherical natural
magnet formed lines that encircled the sphere and passed through two points
diametrically opposite each other, which he called the poles of the magnet.
Subsequent experiments showed that every magnet, regardless of its shape,
has two poles, called north (N) and south (S) poles, that exert forces on other
magnetic poles similar to the way electric charges exert forces on one another.
That is, like poles (N–N or S–S) repel each other, and opposite poles (N–S)
attract each other.
The poles received their names because of the way a magnet, such as that
in a compass, behaves in the presence of the Earth’s magnetic field. If a bar
magnet is suspended from its midpoint and can swing freely in a horizontal
plane, it will rotate until its north pole points to the Earth’s geographic
North Pole and its south pole points to the Earth’s geographic South Pole.
In 1600, William Gilbert (1540–1603) extended de Maricourt’s experiments
to a variety of materials. He knew that a compass needle orients in preferred
directions, so he suggested that the Earth itself is a large, permanent magnet.
In 1750, experimenters used a torsion balance to show that magnetic poles
exert attractive or repulsive forces on each other and that these forces vary
as the inverse square of the distance between interacting poles.
Although the force between two magnetic poles is otherwise similar to
the force between two electric charges, electric charges can be isolated
(witness the electron and proton), whereas a single magnetic pole has never
been isolated. That is, magnetic poles are always found in pairs. All attempts
thus far to detect an isolated magnetic pole have been unsuccessful.
No matter how many times a permanent magnet is cut in two, each piece
always has a north and a south pole. The relationship between magnetism
and electricity was discovered in 1819 when, during a lecture demonstration,
Hans Christian Oersted found that an electric current in a wire deflected
a nearby compass needle. In the 1820s, further connections between
electricity and magnetism were demonstrated independently by Faraday and
Joseph Henry (1797–1878). They showed that an electric current can be
produced in a circuit either by moving a magnet near the circuit or by changing
the current in a nearby circuit. These observations demonstrate that a changing
magnetic field creates an electric field. Years later, theoretical work by
Maxwell showed that the reverse is also true: a changing electric field
creates a magnetic field. This chapter examines the forces that act on moving
charges and on current-carrying wires in the presence of a magnetic field.
The source of the magnetic field is described in Chapter 30.

Analysis Model: Particle in a Field (Magnetic)

In our study of electricity, we described

the interactions between charged objects
in terms of electric fields. Recall that
an electric field surrounds any electric
charge. In addition to containing an electric
field, the region of space surrounding any
moving electric charge also contains
a magnetic field.
A magnetic field also surrounds a
magnetic substance making up
a permanent magnet. Historically,
the symbol ⃗𝑩 ⃗ has been used to represent
a magnetic field, and we use this notation
in this book. The direction of the magnetic
field ⃗𝑩
⃗ at any location is the direction in
which a compass needle points at that location.
As with the electric field, we can represent
the magnetic field by means of drawings with
magnetic field lines. Figure shows how the magnetic field lines of a bar magnet
can be traced with the aid of a compass. Notice that the magnetic field lines
outside the magnet point away from the north pole and toward the south pole.
One can display magnetic field patterns of a bar magnet using small iron filings
as shown in the figure above.
We can quantify the magnetic field ⃗𝑩 ⃗ by using our model of a particle
in a field, like the model discussed for gravity and for electricity
in Chapter 23. The existence of a magnetic field at some point
in space can be determined by measuring the magnetic force 𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝑩 exerted
on an appropriate test particle placed at that point. This process is the same
as one we followed in defining the electric field in Chapter 23.
If we perform such an experiment by placing a particle with
charge 𝑞 in the magnetic field, we find the following results that are
similar to those for experiments on electric forces:

1- The magnetic force is proportional to the charge 𝒒 of the particle.

2- The magnetic force on a negative charge is directed opposite to
the force on a positive charge moving in the same direction.
3- The magnetic force is proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic
⃗⃗ .
field vector 𝑩

We also find the following results, which are totally different from those
for experiments on electric forces:
1- The magnetic force is proportional to the speed 𝒗 of the particle.
2- If the velocity vector makes an angle 𝜽 with the magnetic field,
the magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽.
3- When a charged particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector,
the magnetic force on the charge is zero.
4- When a charged particle moves in a direction not parallel to
the magnetic field vector, the magnetic force acts in a direction
perpendicular to both ⃗𝒗 and ⃗𝑩
⃗ ; that is, the magnetic force is
perpendicular to the plane formed by ⃗𝒗 and 𝑩 ⃗⃗ .
Vector expression for the magnetic force on a charged particle
moving in a magnetic field

⃗⃗ 𝑩 = 𝒒𝒗
𝑭 ⃗⃗
⃗ 𝒙𝑩

Magnetic force like any other force

is a vector quantity and its direction
is determined as follows:
1- the thumb points in
the direction of ⃗𝒗,
2- the four extended fingers point
in the direction of 𝑩⃗⃗ then
3- the force ⃗𝑭
⃗ 𝑩 on a positive charge
extends outward from the palm.
Outward from your palm.
The force on a negative charge is in the opposite direction.
Magnitude of the magnetic force on a charged particle moving
in a magnetic field

𝐹𝐵 = |𝑞 |𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where 𝜃 is the smaller angle between ⃗𝒗 and 𝑩 ⃗⃗ . From this expression,
⃗ (𝜃 = 0°) or
we see that 𝐹𝐵 is zero when ⃗𝒗 is parallel to 𝐵
⃗ (𝜃 = 180°) and maximum when ⃗𝒗 is perpendicular
antiparallel to 𝐵
to ⃗𝑩
⃗ ( 𝜃 = 90°).

Let us compare the important differences between the electric and

magnetic versions of the particle in a field model:

1- The electric force vector is along the direction of the electric field,
whereas the magnetic force vector is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
2- The electric force acts on a charged particle regardless of whether
the particle is moving, whereas the magnetic force acts on a charged
particle only when the particle is in motion.
3- The electric force does work in displacing a charged particle, whereas
the magnetic force associated with a steady magnetic field does NO work
when a particle is displaced because the force is perpendicular to
the displacement of its point of application.

Note:
From the last statement and on the basis of the work–kinetic energy theorem,
we conclude that the kinetic energy of a charged particle moving through a
magnetic field cannot be altered by the magnetic field alone. The field can alter
the direction of the velocity vector, but it cannot change the speed or kinetic
energy of the particle.
From equation 𝐹𝐵 = |𝑞 |𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, we see that the SI unit of magnetic
field is the Newton per Ampere-meter, which
is called the Tesla (T):

Newton N
1Tesla = 1 1T = 1
Ampere∙meter A∙s
QQ 1
An electron moves in the plane of this paper toward the top of the page.
A magnetic field is also in the plane of the page and directed toward
the right. What is the direction of the magnetic force on the electron?
(a) toward the top of the page
(b) toward the bottom of the page
(c) toward the left edge of the page
(d) toward the right edge of the page
(e) upward out of the page
(f) downward into the page

Examples of motion of particles in a magnetic field.

1- an ion moves in a circular path in the magnetic field of a mass
spectrometer
2- a coil in a motor rotates in response to the magnetic field
in the motor
3- a magnetic field is used to separate particles emitted by
radioactive sources
4- in a bubble chamber, particles created in collisions follow curved
paths in a magnetic field, allowing the particles to be identified.
Motion of an Electron in a Magnetic Field

An electron in an old-style television

picture tube moves toward the front
𝑚
of the tube with a speed of 8.0 ∙ 106
𝑠
along the x axis.
Surrounding the neck of the tube are
coils of wire that create a magnetic
field of magnitude 0.025𝑇, directed
at an angle of 60° to the x axis
and lying in the xy plane. Calculate
the magnetic force on the electron.

Solution:
We evaluate the magnetic force using the
magnetic version of the particle in a field model.

𝐹𝐵 = |𝑞 |𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = |−1.6 ∙ 10−19 |(8.0 ∙ 106)(2.5 ∙ 10−2 )𝑠𝑖𝑛60°

𝑭𝑩 = 𝟐. 𝟖 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟒 𝑵

Note:
For practice, using the vector product, evaluate this force in vector
notation using equation
⃗⃗ 𝑩 = 𝒒𝒗
𝑭 ⃗ 𝒙𝑩⃗⃗ .
The magnitude of the magnetic force may seem small to you,
but remember that it is acting on a very small particle, the electron.
To convince yourself that this is a substantial force for an electron,
calculate the initial acceleration of the electron due to this force.
From Newton’s Second Law we have
𝐹𝐵 2.8 ∙ 10 −14
𝑎𝑒 = =
𝑚𝑒 9.1 ∙ 10 −31
𝒎
𝒂𝒆 ≈ 𝟑. 𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 Acceleration is very large.
𝒔𝟐
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field

Apart from four typical directions most commonly used named

upward, downward, to the right and to the left, now we introduce two
more directions.
These directions are shown in the figures below.
In this section, we found that
the magnetic force acting on a charged
particle moving in a magnetic field is
perpendicular to the particle’s velocity
and consequently the work done by
the magnetic force on the particle is
zero. Now consider the special case
of a positively charged particle moving
in a uniform magnetic field with
the initial velocity vector of the particle
perpendicular to the field. Let’s assume
the direction of the magnetic field is into
the page as in the figure shown.
The particle in a field model tells us that
the magnetic force on the particle is
perpendicular to both the magnetic field
lines and the velocity of the particle.
The fact that there is a force on the particle
tells us to apply the particle under a net
force model to the particle. As the particle
changes the direction of its velocity
in response to the magnetic force,
the magnetic force remains perpendicular
to the velocity. As we found in Chapter 6,
if the force is always perpendicular to
the velocity, the path of the particle is a
circle!
Figure above shows the particle moving in a circle in a plane perpendicular to
the magnetic field. Although magnetism and magnetic forces may be new and
unfamiliar to you now, we see a magnetic effect that results in something with
which we are familiar:
the Particle in Uniform Circular Motion Model!
We use the particle under a net force model to write Newton’s Second Law for the
particle:

∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑎

Because the particle moves in a circle, we also model it as a particle in uniform

circular motion and we replace the acceleration with centripetal acceleration:
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 =
𝑟
This expression leads to the following equation for the radius of the circular path:
𝑚𝑣
𝑟=
𝑞𝐵

That is, the radius of the path is proportional to the linear momentum mv of the
particle and inversely proportional to the magnitude of the charge on the particle
and to the magnitude of the magnetic field. The angular speed of the particle (from
Chapter 10) is
𝑣 𝑞𝐵
𝜔= or 𝜔 =
𝑟 𝑚

The period of the motion (the time interval the particle requires to complete one
revolution) is equal to the circumference of the circle divided by the speed of the
particle:

2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑚
𝑇= or 𝑇 = or 𝑇 =
𝑣 𝜔 𝑞𝐵

These results show that the angular speed 𝝎 of the particle and the period
of the circular motion 𝑻 do not depend on the speed of the particle or on
the radius of the orbit. The angular speed 𝝎 is often referred to as
the cyclotron frequency because charged particles circulate at this
angular frequency in the type of accelerator called a cyclotron.
If a charged particle moves
in a uniform magnetic field
with its velocity at some
arbitrary angle with respect to 𝐵 ⃗,
its path is a helix. For example,
if the field is directed in the x
direction as shown in the figure,
there is no component of force
in the x direction. As a result,
𝑎𝑥 = 0, and the x component
of velocity remains constant.
The charged particle is a particle
in equilibrium in this direction.
The magnetic force 𝑞𝒗 ⃗ 𝒙𝑩 ⃗⃗
causes the components 𝑣𝑦 and
𝑣𝑧 to change in time, however,
and the resulting motion is a
helix whose axis is parallel to
the magnetic field.
The projection of the path onto
the yz plane (viewed along the x axis)
is a circle. (The projections of the path onto the xy and xz planes are
sinusoids).
Equations
𝑚𝑣 2𝜋𝑚
𝑟= and 𝑇 = still apply provided 𝑣 is replaced
𝑞𝐵 𝑞𝐵
by 𝑣⊥ = √𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2
QQ 2
A charged particle is moving perpendicular to a magnetic field in a circle
with a radius r.
(i)
An identical particle enters the field, with 𝑣 perpendicular to 𝐵 ⃗,
but with a higher speed than the first particle. Compared with the radius
of the circle for the first particle, is the radius of the circular path for
the second particle
(a) smaller,
(b) larger, or
(c) equal in size?
(ii)
The magnitude of the magnetic field is increased. From the same choices,
compare the radius of the new circular path of the first particle with
the radius of its initial path.
(a) smaller,
(b) larger, or
(c) equal in size?

A Proton Moving Perpendicular to a Uniform Magnetic Field

A proton is moving in a circular orbit of radius 14 cm in a uniform 0.35T

magnetic field perpendicular to the velocity of the proton.
Find the speed of the proton.

Solution:
Use equation
𝑚𝑣
𝑟= and solve it for speed 𝑣.
𝑞𝐵

𝑞𝐵𝑟
𝑣= Replace the values known and given and have
𝑚𝑝
(1.60 ⋅ 10 −19 )(3.5 ∙ 10 −1)(1.4 ∙ 10−1)
𝑣𝑝 =
𝒎
1.67 ∙ 10−27
𝒗𝒑 = 𝟒. 𝟕 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝒔
Bending an Electron Beam
In an experiment designed to
measure the magnitude of a
uniform magnetic field, electrons
are accelerated from rest through
a potential difference of 350V and
then enter a uniform magnetic field
that is perpendicular to the velocity
vector of the electrons. The electrons
travel along a curved path because
of the magnetic force exerted on
them, and the radius of the path is
measured to be 7.5cm.
(Such a curved beam of electrons
is shown in the figure.)
(A)
What is the magnitude
of the magnetic field?

Solution:

We can categorize this problem by modeling an electron and the electric

field as an isolated system in terms of energy. Once the electron enters
the magnetic field, we categorize the second part of the problem as one
involving a particle in a field and a particle in uniform circular motion,
as we have done in this section.

The appropriate reduction of the conservation of energy equation

for the electron–electric field system is written as follows:
∆𝐾 + ∆𝑈 = 0
Substitute the appropriate initial and final energies and have:
1
( 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2 − 0) + (𝑞∆𝑉 ) = 0
2
Solve for the speed of the electron
−2𝑞∆𝑉
𝑣=√
𝑚𝑒
Substitute numerical values and have
−2(−1.60∙10−19 )(3.50∙102 )
𝑣=√
9.11∙10−31
𝒎
𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟕
𝒔
Now solve for the magnitude of the magnetic field using equation
𝑚𝑣
𝑟= and solve for magnetic field B
𝑞𝐵

𝑚𝑒 𝑣 (9.11∙10−31 )∙(1.11∙107 )
𝐵= =
𝑞𝑟 (1.60∙10−19 )(7.50∙10−2 )
−𝟒
𝑩 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎 𝑻

(B)
What is the Angular Speed of the electrons?
𝑣 1.11∙107
Use formula 𝜔 = =
𝑟 7.50∙10−2
𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝒔

The angular speed can be represented as

𝑟𝑎𝑑 1𝑟𝑒𝑣 𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝜔 = (1.50 ∙ 108 )( ) = 2.4 ∙ 107 .
𝑠 2𝜋𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠
The electrons travel around the circle 24 million times per second!
This answer is consistent with the very high speed found in part (A).

Applications Involving Charged Particles Moving

in a Magnetic Field
A charge moving with a velocity ⃗𝒗 in the presence of both an electric
⃗⃗ and a magnetic field ⃗𝑩
field 𝑬 ⃗ is described by two particles in
a field models. It experiences both an electric force 𝑞𝑬 ⃗⃗ and
a magnetic force 𝑞𝒗 ⃗ 𝒙𝑩⃗⃗ . The total force (called the Lorentz force)
acting on the charge is
𝐹 = 𝑞𝑬 ⃗⃗ + 𝑞𝒗 ⃗⃗
⃗ 𝒙𝑩
1- Velocity Selector

In many experiments involving moving charged particles, it is important

that all particles move with essentially the same velocity, which can be
achieved by applying a combination of an electric field and a magnetic
field oriented as shown in the figure above. A uniform electric field
is directed to the right and a uniform magnetic field is applied in
the direction perpendicular to the electric field.
If q is positive and the velocity ⃗𝒗 is upward, the magnetic force
𝑞𝒗⃗ 𝒙 ⃗𝑩
⃗ is to the left and the electric force 𝑞𝑬
⃗⃗ is to the right.
When the magnitudes of the two fields are chosen so that 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵,
the forces cancel. The charged particle is modeled as a particle
in equilibrium and moves in a straight vertical line through the region
of the fields. From the expression 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵, we find that
𝑬
𝒗=
𝑩
Only those particles having this speed pass undeflected through the mutually
perpendicular electric and magnetic fields. The magnetic force exerted on
particles moving at speeds greater than that is stronger than the electric force,
and the particles are deflected to the left. Those moving at slower speeds are
deflected to the right.

2- Mass Spectrometer

A mass spectrometer separates ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio.

In one version of this device, known as the Bainbridge mass spectrometer,
a beam of ions first passes through a velocity selector and then enters
a second uniform magnetic field ⃗𝑩 ⃗ 𝟎 that has the same direction as the magnetic
field in the selector (As shown in the figure above). Upon entering the second
magnetic field, the ions are described by the particle in uniform circular
motion model. They move in a semicircle of radius r before striking a detector
array at P. If the ions are positively charged, the beam deflects to the left.
If the ions are negatively charged, the beam deflects to the right.
From equation
𝑚𝑣 𝑚
𝑟= we can express the ratio as
𝑞𝐵 𝑞
𝑚 𝑟𝐵0
=
𝑞 𝑣

3- The Cyclotron
A cyclotron is a device that can accelerate charged particles to very
high speeds. The energetic particles produced are used to bombard
atomic nuclei and thereby produce nuclear reactions of interest
to researchers.
Magnetic Force Acting on a Current-Carrying Conductor

Let us quantify this discussion by considering

a straight segment of wire of length 𝐿 and
cross-sectional area 𝐴 carrying a current 𝐼
in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ as shown in
the figure. According to the magnetic version
of the particle in a field model, the magnetic
force exerted on a charge 𝑞 moving with a
drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 is 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝑥 𝐵 ⃗ . To find
the total force acting on the wire, we
multiply the force 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝑥 𝐵 ⃗ exerted on one
charge by the number of charges in
the segment. Because the volume of the segment
is 𝐴𝐿, the number of charges in the segment is
𝑛𝐴𝐿, where 𝑛 is the number of mobile charge
carriers per unit volume. Hence, the total
magnetic force on the segment of wire of
length 𝐿 is
 ⃗ )𝑛𝐴𝐿
𝐹𝐵 = (𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝑥 𝐵

We can write this expression in a more convenient form by noting that,

from equation
∆𝑄
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴,
∆𝑡
the current in the wire is
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴
Therefore,
⃗⃗ 𝑩 = 𝑰𝑳
𝑭 ⃗ 𝒙𝑩 ⃗⃗
Now consider an arbitrarily shaped
wire segment of uniform cross section
in a magnetic field as shown in
the figure. It follows from equation
⃗⃗ 𝑩 = 𝐼𝑳
𝑭 ⃗ 𝑥𝑩 ⃗⃗ that the magnetic force
exerted on a small segment of vector
length 𝑑𝒔 ⃗ in the presence of a field 𝑩 ⃗⃗
is 𝑑𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝑩 = 𝐼𝑑𝒔 ⃗ 𝒙𝑩 ⃗⃗ where 𝑑𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝑩 is directed
out of the page for the directions of 𝑩 ⃗⃗
and 𝑑𝒔 ⃗ in shown in the figure.
Equation
𝑑𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝐵 = 𝐼𝑑𝒔 ⃗ 𝑥𝑩 ⃗⃗
can be considered as an alternative
definition of 𝑩 ⃗⃗ . That is, we can define
the magnetic field 𝑩 ⃗⃗ in terms of a
measurable force exerted on a current
element, where the force is a maximum
when ⃗𝑩 ⃗ is perpendicular to the element
and zero when 𝑩 ⃗⃗ is parallel to the element.
To calculate the total force 𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝑩 acting on
the wire shown in the figure, we integrate equation
𝑑𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝐵 = 𝐼𝑑𝒔 ⃗ 𝑥𝑩 ⃗⃗ over the length of the wire:
𝑏
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼 ∫𝑎 𝑑𝒔 ⃗ 𝑥𝑩 ⃗⃗
where a and b represent the endpoints of the wire. When this integration
is carried out, the magnitude of the magnetic field and the direction
the field makes with the vector 𝑑𝒔⃗ may differ at different points.

QQ 3
A wire carries current in the plane of this paper toward the top of the page.
The wire experiences a magnetic force toward the right edge of the page.
Is the direction of the magnetic field causing this force
(a) in the plane of the page and toward the left edge,
(b) in the plane of the page and toward the bottom edge,
(c) upward out of the page, or
(d) downward into the page?

Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field

Consider a rectangular loop carrying a current 𝐼 in the presence of

a uniform magnetic field directed parallel to the plane of the loop as
shown in the figure. No magnetic forces act on sides 1 and 3 because these
wires are parallel to the field; hence, 𝐿⃗ 𝑥 𝐵
⃗ = 0 for these sides.
Magnetic forces do, however, act on sides 2 and 4 because these sides are
oriented perpendicular to the field. The magnitude of these forces is,
from equation
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿⃗ 𝑥 𝐵
⃗,
𝐹2 = 𝐹4 = 𝐼𝑎𝐵
The direction of 𝐹2, the magnetic force exerted on wire 2, is out of the page
in the view shown in figure (a) and that of 𝐹4 , the magnetic force exerted
on wire 4, is into the page in the same view. If we view the loop from side 3
and sight along sides 2 and 4, we see the view shown in figure (b), and
the two magnetic forces 𝐹2 and 𝐹4 are directed as shown. Notice that the two
forces point in opposite directions but are not directed along the same line
of action. If the loop is pivoted so that it can rotate about point 𝑂, these
two forces produce about point 𝑂 a torque that rotates the loop clockwise.
The magnitude of this torque 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 is
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐹2 + 𝐹4 = (𝐼𝑎𝐵 ) + (𝐼𝑎𝐵 ) = 𝐼𝑎𝑏𝐵
2 2 2 2
𝑏
where the moment arm about 𝑂 is for each force. Because the area
2
enclosed by the loop is 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏, we can express the maximum torque
as 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵
This maximum-torque result is valid only when the magnetic field
is parallel to the plane of the loop. The sense of the rotation is clockwise
when viewed from side 3 as indicated in figure (b). If the current
direction were reversed, the force directions would also reverse and
the rotational tendency would be counterclockwise.

Now suppose the uniform magnetic

field makes an angle 𝜃 < 90°
with a line perpendicular to the plane
of the loop as in the figure.
For convenience, let’s assume 𝑩 ⃗⃗ is
perpendicular to sides 2 and 4. In this case,
the magnetic forces 𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝟏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗𝑭⃗ 𝟑 exerted on
sides 1 and 3 cancel each other and produce
no torque because they act along the same
line. The magnetic forces 𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗𝑭 ⃗𝟒
acting on sides 2 and 4, however, produce a torque about any point. Referring to
the edge view shown in the figure, we see that
the moment arm of 𝑭 ⃗⃗ 𝟐 about the point 𝑂 is equal to (𝑏 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Likewise, the
2
moment arm of 𝐹4 about 𝑂 is also
𝑏
equal to ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Because 𝐹2 = 𝐹4 = 𝐼𝑎𝐵,
2
the magnitude of the net torque about O is

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
𝜏 = 𝐹2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐹4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐼𝑎𝐵 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) + 𝐼𝑎𝐵 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
2 2 2 2

𝝉 = 𝑰𝑨𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

where 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 is the area of the loop. This result shows that the torque
has its maximum value 𝐼𝐴𝐵 when the field is perpendicular to the normal
to the plane of the loop (𝜃 = 90°) and is zero when the field is parallel
to the normal to the plane of the loop (𝜃 = 0°).

A convenient vector expression for the torque exerted on a loop placed

⃗ is
in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵
𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑥 𝐵⃗

where 𝐴, the vector shown in the figure, is perpendicular to the plane

of the loop and has a magnitude equal to the area of the loop.
To determine the direction of 𝐴, use the right-hand rule described in
the figure shown. When you curl the fingers of your right hand in
the direction of the current in the loop, your thumb points in the direction
of 𝐴. Figure shown indicates that the loop tends to rotate in the direction
of decreasing values of 𝜃 (that is, such that the area vector 𝐴 rotates toward
the direction of the magnetic field).
The product 𝐼𝑨⃗⃗ is defined to be the magnetic dipole moment ⃗𝝁
⃗
(often simply called the “magnetic moment”) of the loop:
𝝁 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝑨

The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is the 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∙ 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2 (𝐴 ∙ 𝑚2 ).

If a coil of wire contains N loops of the same area, the magnetic moment
of the coil is
⃗⃗ 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑁𝐼𝑨
𝝁 ⃗⃗

Using equation 𝝁 ⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝑨⃗⃗ ,

we can express the torque exerted on a current-carrying loop
⃗⃗ as
in a magnetic field 𝑩
⃗𝝉 = ⃗𝝁 ⃗⃗
⃗ 𝒙𝑩
Although we derived the torque expression for a rectangular loop, the result
is valid for a loop of any shape.

The Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Coil

A rectangular coil of dimensions 5.40cm x 8.50cm consists of 25turns

of wire and carries a current of 15.0mA. A 0.350T magnetic field
is applied parallel to the plane of the coil.
(A)
Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of the coil.
Use equation 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴 to calculate the magnetic moment associated
with a coil consisting of 𝑁 turns:
𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 𝑁𝐼𝐴 = (25)(15.0 ∙ 10−3)(5.40 ∙ 10 −2)(8.5 ∙ 10−2)

𝝁𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨 ∙ 𝒎𝟐

(B)
What is the magnitude of the torque acting on the loop?
Use equation
𝜏=𝜇𝑥𝐵 ⃗ noting that 𝐵
⃗ is perpendicular to 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝜏 = 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐵 = (1.72 ∙ 10−3 )(0.350)
𝝉 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝑵 ∙ 𝒎

The Hall Effect

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a potential
difference is generated in a direction perpendicular to both the current and
the magnetic field. This phenomenon, first observed by Edwin Hall
(1855–1938) in 1879, is known as the Hall effect.
The arrangement for observing the Hall effect consists of a flat conductor
carrying a current I in the x direction as shown in the figure.
A uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ is applied in
the y direction. If the charge carriers are
electrons moving in the negative x direction
with a drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 , they experience an
upward magnetic force 𝐅𝐵 = 𝑞𝐯⃗𝐝 𝐱 ⃗𝐁 ⃗ , are
deflected upward, and accumulate at the upper
edge of the flat conductor, leaving an excess of
positive charge at the lower edge (See figure
below for details).
This accumulation of charge at the edges
establishes an electric field in the conductor
and increases until the electric force on
carriers remaining in the bulk of the conductor
balances the magnetic force acting on
the carriers. The electrons can now be
described by the particle in equilibrium model,
and they are no longer deflected upward. A
sensitive voltmeter connected across the sample
as shown in the figure can measure the potential difference, known as the Hall
voltage ∆𝑽𝑯 generated across the conductor.

If the charge carriers are positive and hence move in the positive x direction
(for rightward current) as shown in the figures above and below, they also
experience an upward magnetic force 𝑞𝐯⃗𝐝 𝐱 ⃗𝐁 ⃗ , which produces a buildup
of positive charge on the upper edge and leaves an excess of negative charge
on the lower edge. Hence, the sign of the Hall voltage generated in the sample
is opposite the sign of the Hall voltage resulting from the deflection of electrons.
The sign of the charge carriers can therefore be determined from measuring
the polarity of the Hall voltage.

In deriving an expression for the Hall voltage, first note that the magnetic
force exerted on the carriers has magnitude 𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵. In equilibrium, this force
is balanced by the electric force 𝑞𝐸𝐻 , where 𝐸𝐻 is the magnitude of
the electric field due to the charge separation
(sometimes referred to as the Hall field). Therefore,
𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐵 = 𝑞𝐸𝐻
𝑣𝑑 𝐵 = 𝐸𝐻
If d is the width of the conductor, the Hall voltage is
∆𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑑 𝐵𝑑

Therefore, the measured Hall voltage gives a value for the drift speed
of the charge carriers if d and B are known. We can obtain the charge -carrier
density n by measuring the current in the sample. From equation for
drift speed we get the drift speed as
𝐼
𝑣𝑑 =
𝑛𝑞𝐴
where A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.
𝐼
Substituting equation 𝑣𝑑 = into equation ∆𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑑 𝐵𝑑
𝑛𝑞𝐴
gives
𝐼𝐵𝑑
∆𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑞𝐴

Because 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑑, where t is the thickness of the conductor, we can also

express the above equation as
𝐼𝐵 𝑅 𝐼𝐵
∆𝑉𝐻 = = 𝐻
𝑛𝑞𝑡 𝑡
1
where 𝑅𝐻 = is called the Hall coefficient. This relationship shows that
𝑛𝑞
a properly calibrated conductor can be used to measure the magnitude
of an unknown magnetic field.
The Hall Effect for Copper
A rectangular copper strip 1.5𝑐𝑚 wide and 0.10𝑐𝑚 thick carries a current
of 5.0𝐴. Find the Hall voltage for a 1.2𝑇 magnetic field applied in a direction
perpendicular to the strip.

Solution:
We evaluate the Hall voltage using an equation developed in this section,
so, we categorize this example as a substitution problem.
Assuming one electron per atom is available for conduction, first find
the charge-carrier density in terms of the molar mass 𝑀 and density
𝜌 of copper:
𝑁 𝑁 𝜌
𝑛= 𝐴= 𝐴
𝑉 𝑀
𝐼𝐵 𝑅 𝐼𝐵
Substitute this result into equation ∆𝑉𝐻 = = 𝐻
𝑛𝑞𝑡 𝑡
𝐼𝐵 𝑀𝐼𝐵
∆𝑉𝐻 = =
𝑛𝑞𝑡 𝑁𝐴 𝜌𝑞𝑡
Substitute numerical values:
(6.35 ∙ 10 −2)(5.00 ∙ 100 )(1.20 ∙ 100 )
∆𝑉𝐻 =
(6.02 ∙ 1023)(8.92 ∙ 103 )(1.60 ∙ 10−19 )(1.00 ∙ 10−3)

∆𝑽𝑯 = 𝟒. 𝟒 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑽
Such an extremely small Hall voltage is expected in good conductors.
(Notice that the width of the conductor is not needed in this calculation.)
What if the strip has the same dimensions but is made of a semiconductor?
Will the Hall voltage be smaller or larger?

Answer
In semiconductors, 𝑛 is much smaller than it is in metals that contribute one
electron per atom to the current; hence, the Hall voltage is usually larger
because it varies as the inverse of 𝑛. Currents on the order of 0.1𝑚𝐴 are
generally used for such materials. Consider a piece of silicon (a semiconducting
material) that has the same dimensions as the copper strip in this example and
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
whose value for 𝑛 is 1.0 ∙ 1020 3
.
𝑚
Taking 𝐵 = 1.2𝑇 and 𝐼 = 0.1𝑚𝐴, we find that ∆𝑽𝑯 = 𝟕. 𝟓 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑽.
A potential difference of this magnitude is readily (easily) measured.

4/893 OQ
A proton moving horizontally enters
a region where a uniform magnetic
field is directed perpendicular to
the proton’s velocity as shown in the figure.
After the proton enters the field, does it
(a) deflect downward, with its speed
remaining constant;
(b) deflect upward, moving in a semicircular
path with constant speed,
and exit the field moving to the left;
(c) continue to move in the horizontal direction with constant velocity;
(d) move in a circular orbit and become trapped by the field; or
(e) deflect out of the plane of the paper?

Solution:
Correct choice is (b).
Because proton enters the magnetic field at right angle and as such
it follows a circular path in counterclockwise direction.
Using right hand rule we observe that the magnetic force on the proton
is acting upward at the point of entry.

5/893 OQ
At a certain instant, a proton is moving in the positive x direction through
a magnetic field in the negative z direction.
What is the direction of the magnetic force exerted on the proton?
(a) positive z direction
(b) negative z direction
(c) positive y direction
(d) negative y direction
(e) The force is zero.

Solution:
Correct choice is (c). Positive y direction.

8/894 OQ
Classify each of the following statements as a characteristic
(a) of electric forces only,
(b) of magnetic forces only,
(c) of both electric and magnetic forces, or
(d) of neither electric nor magnetic forces.
(i) The force is proportional to the magnitude of the field exerting it.
(ii) The force is proportional to the magnitude of the charge of the object
on which the force is exerted.
(iii) The force exerted on a negatively charged object is opposite in direction
to the force on a positive charge.
(iv) The force exerted on a stationary charged object is nonzero.
(v) The force exerted on a moving charged object is zero.
(vi) The force exerted on a charged object is proportional to its speed.
(vii) The force exerted on a charged object cannot alter the object’s speed.
(viii) The magnitude of the force depends on the charged object’s direction
of motion.

Solution:
Formulas of Electric Force and Magnetic Force.
⃗⃗ 𝒆 = 𝒒𝑬
𝑭 ⃗⃗ and
⃗⃗ 𝑩 = 𝒒𝒗
𝑭 ⃗⃗
⃗ 𝒙𝑩

(i) The force is proportional to the magnitude of the field exerting it.
Answer:
(c) of both electric and magnetic forces
(ii) The force is proportional to the magnitude of the charge of the object
on which the force is exerted.
Answer:
(c) of both electric and magnetic forces
(iii) The force exerted on a negatively charged object is opposite in direction
to the force on a positive charge.
Answer:
(c) of both electric and magnetic forces
(iv) The force exerted on a stationary charged object is nonzero.
Answer:
(a) of electric forces only
(v) The force exerted on a moving charged object is zero.
Answer:
(b) of magnetic forces only
(vi) The force exerted on a charged object is proportional to its speed.
Answer:
(b) of magnetic forces only
(vii) The force exerted on a charged object cannot alter the object’s speed.
Answer:
(b) of magnetic forces only
(viii) The magnitude of the force depends on the charged object’s direction
of motion.
Answer:
(b) of magnetic forces only

4/894 CQ
How can the motion of a moving charged particle be used to distinguish
between a magnetic field and an electric field?
Give a specific example to justify your argument.

Solution:
An electric field will provide an acceleration only in a given direction
to a given charged particle. Also, the charged particle does not need to
be moving initially to undergo this acceleration due to the electric field.
On the other hand, the magnetic force is always perpendicular to
the speed and the magnetic field. This means that as the direction
of the velocity changes, which it does, since the acceleration by
the magnetic force is applied, the magnetic force changes direction
as well. This leads to trajectories in the shape of circles or helixes,
depending on the initial velocity direction.
Furthermore, the magnetic force does not act unless the charged
particle is moving.

We can judge based on whether the forces act when the particles
are at rest and on the direction of acceleration.

2/895 P
Determine the initial direction of the magnetic force acting on
charged particles as they enter the magnetic fields shown in the figure.

Solution:
Example Direction Direction Sign of Angle Direction
⃗
of 𝐵 of 𝑣 charge between of ⃗𝑭
⃗𝑩
q ⃗ and 𝑣
𝐵
(a) into right + 90° up
(b) up left ‒ 90° out
(c) right left + 180° zero
(d) 45° with 𝑣 up + 45° into

3/895 P
Find the direction of the magnetic field acting on a positively charged
particle moving in the various situations shown in the figure if
the direction of the magnetic force acting on it is as indicated.
Solution:
Example Direction Direction Sign of Direction
of 𝑣 of ⃗FB charge ⃗⃗
of 𝑩
q
(a) right up + into
(b) out up + right
(c) in left + down

6/895 P
𝑚
A proton moving at 4.00 𝑥 106 through a magnetic field of magnitude
𝑠
1.70𝑇 experiences a magnetic force of magnitude 8.20 𝑥 10−13 𝑁.
What is the angle between the proton’s velocity and the field?
Solution:
Use formula
𝐹𝐵 8.20 𝑥 10−13
𝐹𝐵 = |𝑞 |𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and solve for 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
|𝑞|𝑣𝐵 |−1.60 𝑥 10−19 |(4.00 𝑥 106 )(1.70)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0.75
𝜽 ≈ 𝟒𝟗°

13/895 P
An electron moves in a circular path perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field
𝑚
with a magnitude of 2𝑚𝑇. If the speed of the electron is 1.50 𝑥 107 ,
𝑠
determine
(a) the radius of the circular path and
(b) the time interval required to complete one revolution.

Solution:
Given:
mass of the electron 𝑚𝑒 = 9.11 𝑥10 −31 𝑘𝑔,
charge of the electron 𝑞𝑒 = 𝑒 = −1.60 𝑥10 −19 𝐶,
angle between velocity and magnetic field vectors 𝜃 = 90°,
𝑚
speed of the electron 𝑣 = 1.50 𝑥 107 and
𝑠
magnetic field strength 𝐵 = 2𝑚𝑇 = 2.00 𝑥 10 −3𝑇.
(a)
To calculate the radius of path followed by the electron we use formula

𝑚𝑣 (9.11 𝑥 10−31 )(1.50 𝑥 107 )

𝑟= = (1.60
𝑞𝐵 𝑥 10−19 )(2.00 𝑥 10−3 )

𝒓 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝒎

(b) To calculate the time interval required to complete one revolution

(period), we use the following formula:

2𝜋𝑚 2∙3.14∙(9.11 𝑥 10−31 )

𝑇= = (1.60
𝑞𝐵 𝑥 10−19 )(2.00 𝑥 10−3 )
−𝟖
𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝒔

16/896 P
A particle with charge 𝑞 and kinetic energy 𝐾 travels in a uniform magnetic
field of magnitude 𝐵. If the particle moves in a circular path of radius 𝑅,
find expressions for
(a) its speed and
(b) its mass.
Solution:
(a)
Given:
Charge 𝑞,
1
Kinetic Energy 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 or 2𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Express 𝑚 in terms of 𝐾 and 𝑣
𝟐𝑲
𝒎 = 𝟐 (EQ.1)
𝒗
Magnetic field strength 𝐵,
Angle 𝜃 = 90° (because the particle moves in a circular path) and
Radius 𝑅.
Formula for the speed of the particle can be found using equation
found for the radius
𝑚𝑣 𝑞𝐵𝑅 𝑞𝐵𝑅 𝑞𝐵𝑅 𝑣2
From 𝑅 = solve for speed 𝑣 = = 2𝐾 ⟹𝑣= ∙
𝑞𝐵 𝑚 1 2𝐾
𝑣2
𝑞𝐵𝑅 𝑣
or 1 = ∙
1 2𝐾
Finally, we find speed
𝟐𝑲
𝒗=
𝒒𝑩𝑹

(b)
In EQ.1 we replace the expression for velocity found in part (a)
and have:
2𝐾
𝑚 = 𝟐𝑲 2
( )
𝒒𝑩𝑹
𝒒𝟐 𝑩𝟐 𝑹𝟐
𝒎=
𝟐𝑲

25/896 P
Consider the mass spectrometer shown
schematically in the figure. The magnitude
of the electric field between the plates of
𝑉
the velocity selector is 2.50 𝑥 103 , and
𝑚
the magnetic field in both the velocity selector and the deflection chamber has a
magnitude of 0.0350𝑇. Calculate
the radius of the path for a singly
charged ion having a mass
𝑚 = 2.18 𝑥10 −26 𝑘𝑔.

Solution:
Because the ion moves in a straight
line during the time it travels in
the space between the two plates,
the electric force (directed right)
cancels out the magnetic force
(directed left), so the net force equals zero.
The velocity of the particle is determined using formula
𝐸 2.50 𝑥 103
𝑣= =
𝐵 3.50 𝑥 10−2
4
𝑚
𝑣 = 7.14 𝑥 10
𝑠
𝑚𝑣
Now we use the radius of path formula 𝑅 =
𝑞𝐵

𝑚𝑣 (2.18 𝑥 10−26 )(7.14 𝑥 104 )

𝑅= = (1.60
𝑞𝐵 𝑥 10−19 )(3.50 𝑥 10−2 )

𝒓 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝒎

Note:
What does singly charged ion mean?
Answer: An atom which has gained or lost ONE electron only.
In our example the ion is positively charged, so it has lost
one electron.

33/897 P
A conductor carrying a current 𝐼 = 15.0𝐴 is directed along the positive
x axis and perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
𝑁
A magnetic force per unit length of 0.120 acts on the conductor
𝑚
in the negative y direction. Determine
(a) the magnitude and
(b) the direction of the magnetic field in the region through which
the current passes.

Solution:

(a)
Given:
Current 𝐼 = 15.0𝐴,
Angle between length and the magnetic field is 𝜃 = 90°, and
𝐹 𝑁
Magnetic force per unit length 𝐵 = 0.120
𝐿 𝑚
Use following formula and solve for magnetic field B
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿 𝐵
𝐹𝐵 1.20 𝑥 10−1
𝐵= =
𝐼𝐿 1.50 𝑥 101

𝑩 = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑻

(b)
To determine the direction of magnetic field we use Right Hand Rule.
The magnetic field direction is out of the page.

37/897 P
A rod of mass 0.720𝑘𝑔 and
radius 6.00𝑐𝑚 rests on two parallel
rails as shown in the figure that
are 𝑑 = 12.0𝑐𝑚 apart and 𝐿 = 45.0𝑐𝑚
long.
The rod carries a current
of 𝐼 = 48.0𝐴 in the direction shown
and rolls along the rails without slipping. A uniform magnetic field of magnitude
0.240𝑇 is directed perpendicular to
the rod and the rails. If it starts
from rest, what is the speed of
the rod as it leaves the rails?

Solution:
Using Right Hand Rule, we see that magnetic force on the rod
is acting to the right.
The magnitude of the magnetic force is found as follows:
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐼𝑑 𝐵 = (4.80 𝑥 101)(1.20 𝑥 10 −1)(2.40 𝑥 10−1 )
𝐹𝐵 = 1.38𝑁
The work done by magnetic force equals the change in kinetic
energy of the rolling rod.
𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝐾𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
1 1
𝐹𝐵 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔 2
2 2
1 1
𝐼𝑑 𝐵𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔 2
2 2
1 2
1 1 𝑣 2 3
2 ( )
𝐼𝑑 𝐵𝐿 = 𝑚𝑣 + ( 𝑚𝑅 ) = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2 2 𝑅 4
4𝐼𝑑𝐵𝐿 4∙1.38∙0.45
𝑣=√ =√
3𝑚 3∙0.72
𝒎
𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕
𝒔

48/899 P
A current of 17.0mA is maintained in a single circular loop of 2.00m
circumference. A magnetic field of 0.800T is directed parallel to the plane
of the loop.
(a) Calculate the magnetic moment of the loop.
(b) What is the magnitude of the torque exerted by the magnetic field
on the loop?
Solution:
Given:
current 𝐼 = 1.70 𝑥10 −2𝐴,
angle between area vector and magnetic field vector is 𝜃 = 90°,
circumference of the circular loop 𝑙 = 2𝑚 hence its radius
𝑙 2.00
is found as follows 𝑅 = = = 0.318𝑚
2𝜋 2∙3.14
magnetic field strength 𝐵 = 0.800𝑇 = 8.00 𝑥 10 −1𝑇.
(a)
Use equation 𝜇 = 𝐼𝐴 to calculate the magnetic moment.
𝜇 = 𝐼𝐴 = (1.70 ∙ 10 −2 )(3.14)(3.18 ∙ 10 −1)2

𝝁 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟎 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑨 ∙ 𝒎𝟐

(b)
Using equation 𝜇 = 𝐼𝐴 ,
we can express the torque exerted on a current-carrying loop
⃗ as
in a magnetic field 𝐵
𝜏=𝜇𝑥𝐵 ⃗
𝜏 = 𝜇𝐵 = 5.40 𝑥 10−3 ∙ 8.00 𝑥 10−1
𝝉 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑵 ∙ 𝒎

54/900 P
A Hall-effect probe operates with a 120𝑚𝐴 current. When the probe is placed
in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.0800𝑇, it produces a Hall voltage
of 0.700𝜇𝑉.
(a) When it is used to measure an unknown magnetic field, the Hall voltage
is 0.330𝜇𝑉. What is the magnitude of the unknown field?
⃗⃗ is 2.00𝑚𝑚.
(b) The thickness of the probe in the direction of 𝐁
 Find the density of the charge carriers, each of which has charge
of magnitude 𝑒.

Solution:

(a)
Use the formula for Hall voltage in order to find
𝑛𝑞𝑡
ratio.
𝐼
𝐼𝐵 𝑛𝑞𝑡 𝐵 8∙10−2 𝑇
∆𝑉𝐻 = ⟹ = = = 1.14 ∙ 105
𝑛𝑞𝑡 𝐼 ∆𝑉𝐻 7∙10−7 𝑉
Next, we use the ratio found above for Hall voltage measured in part (a)
𝑛𝑞𝑡
𝐵1 = ( ) (∆𝑉𝐻 ) = (1.14 ∙ 105)(3.3 ∙ 10−7 )
𝐼
𝑩𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟕 ∙ 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝑻

(b)
𝑛𝑞𝑡
Use again the ratio and use the known values to calculate
𝐼
𝑛𝑞𝑡
= 1.14 ∙ 105 and solve for 𝑛.
𝐼
(1.14∙105 )(1.20∙10−1 )
𝑛 = (1.60∙10−19 )(2.00∙10−3 )

𝒏 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟗 ∙ 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 /𝒎𝟑

59/900 P
A particle with positive charge 𝑞 = 3.20 𝑥 10−19 𝐶 moves with a velocity
𝑚
𝑣 = (2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ ) through a region where both a uniform magnetic field
𝑠
and a uniform electric field exist.
(a) Calculate the total force on the moving particle (in unit-vector notation),
⃗ = (2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )𝑇 and 𝐸⃗ = (4𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ ) 𝑉 .
taking 𝐵
𝑚
(b) What angle does the force vector make with the positive x axis?

Solution:
(a)
The total force (called the Lorentz force) acting on the charge is found
using formula:
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ + 𝑞𝑣 𝑥 𝐵 ⃗
𝐹 = (3.20 𝑥 10 )[(4𝑖̂ − 1𝑗̂ − 2𝑘̂ ) + (2𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 1𝑘̂ )𝑥(2𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )]
−19

Carrying out the calculations will give

𝑭 = (𝟑. 𝟓𝟐𝒊̂ − 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝒋̂)𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟖 𝑵

(b)
To calculate the angle we can use following formula:
𝐹 3.52
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
𝐹 √(3.52)2 +(1.60)2
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟒°
Note that angle between the force vector and the positive x-axis
can be found using following formulas as well
𝐹𝑦 −1.60
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 ( ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 ( )
𝐹 √(3.52)2 +(1.60)2
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟒° or
𝐹𝑦 −1.60
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( )
𝐹𝑥 +3.52
𝜽 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟒°