DC Power Supply

The main objective of designing a DC power supply is to get always a constant voltage even
when the input supply voltage or connected load changes.
So, a DC power supply system takes the alternating (AC) power and provides a DC
unidirectional or power supply. So, this is involved in voltage step down, rectification,
filtration, and regulation. There are huge applications of DC power supply in sensitive
electronic circuits, appliances, bench power supply, testing instruments, automation systems,
etc.

The most important blocks of this system are,

• Transformer
• Rectifier
• Filter
• Regulator
Transformer
The transformer is a device that transfers the electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit
by changing the voltage level. Here, in this circuit, a step-down transformer is used that is used
to step down the voltage. Generally, it takes the 220V supply as input and provides 12V, 24V,
or 6V as the output according to the circuit output requirement. By changing the turns ratio of
the transformer, the output voltage can be changed.
Rectifier Circuit
The rectifier is an electrical or electronic circuit made of PN Junction Diodes. The main
function of the rectifier circuit is to convert the AC supply into a DC supply. It takes the
Alternating current or AC power supply as input and gives the direct current or DC power
supply as output. The rectifier is the second block of the regulated power supply. Both half and
full-wave rectifier circuits can be used. The half-wave rectifier circuit rectifies one-half cycle
only and makes more power loss but the full-wave rectifier circuit rectifies both half cycles and
makes a very low power loss. For, this reason the center-tapped full wave rectifier or bridge
rectifier circuit is mostly used.
Filter Circuit
The output of the rectifier circuit cannot provide the pure DC supply. There are some ripple or
AC components available in the DC power supply. To remove those ripples or make the DC
supply pure, a filter circuit is used. The output of the rectifier is connected to the input of the
filter circuit. Generally, a pure capacitor filter, LC filter, or pi filter is used. According to nature,
a capacitor blocks DC and allows AC, so it can be connected in parallel for filtration. On the
other hand, an inductor can block AC and allow DC, so it can be connected in series for
filtration purposes.
Regulator Circuit
It is the last and most important block of the regulated power supply. The regulator actually
does the regulation. The regulator circuit uses different types of regulating components and
devices such as a Series inductor, Zener Diode, IC 78XX series, etc. A Zener diode can regulate
voltage by just connecting it in reverse bias. A Zener diode may not have 100% efficiency but
the integrated circuits provide the most possible efficiency. Zener diode helps to regulate the
voltage only whereas the voltage regulator ICs can take care of load current also.

Bridge Rectifier
Bridge Rectifier is a type of Full Wave Rectifier that uses four diodes to form a close-loop
bridge. The diodes conduct in pairs through each positive and negative half cycle, leading to
no wastage of power. The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only
two diodes conducting current during each half cycle.

The Positive Half-cycle

During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.
The Negative Half-cycle
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through
the load is the same direction as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore
the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax.
Waveforms
 Bridge Rectifier with capacitor filter
The output we get from a full-wave rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage that increases to a
maximum and then decreases to zero.
We do not need this kind of DC voltage. What we need is a steady and constant DC voltage,
free of any voltage variation or ripple, as we get from the battery.
To obtain such a voltage, we need to filter the full-wave signal. One way to do this is to connect
a capacitor, known as a smoothing capacitor, across the load resistor as shown below.

Initially, the capacitor is uncharged. During the first quarter-cycle, diodes D1 and D2 are
forward biased, so the capacitor starts charging. The charging continues until the input reaches
its peak value. At this point, the capacitor voltage equals Vp.
After the input voltage reaches its peak, it begins to decrease. As soon as the input voltage is
less than Vp, the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the input voltage which turns off the
diodes.
As the diodes are off, the capacitor discharges through the load resistor and supplies the load
current, until the next peak is arrived.
When the next peak arrives, diodes D3 and D4 conduct briefly and recharges the capacitor to
the peak value.
 The Zener Diode Regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source,
via a suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to
maintain a voltage drop of Vout.
We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage from the half or full-wave
rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that as the load value changes
so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener based stabiliser circuit as
shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage can be produced.

Resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode to limit the current flow through the
diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination. The stabilised
output voltage Vout is taken from across the zener diode.
The zener diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC
supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor RS is
selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the circuit.
With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ). Thus, all the
circuit current will pass through the diode which dissipates its maximum power.
Also, a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode current when the load
resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power dissipation requirement of
the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value of series resistance so that
the zener’s maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance
condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the voltage across RL is always the
same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ).
There is a minimum zener current for which the stabilisation of the voltage is effective and the
zener current must stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at
all times. The upper limit of current is of course dependent upon the power rating of the device.
The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
 Public Address system
A public Address System or PA system is an electronic system that includes acoustic signal
converting, mixing, amplifying, and playing. A PA system has microphones, amplifiers, and
loudspeakers as its main components or equipment. We know that the intensity of the sound
decreases with the distance. Also, a particular sound can be affected or distorted by the other
sound if the level or volume of the sound is the same. So, if we want to deliver sound energy
over a long distance or highlight a particular sound or voice in a large crowd or gathering then
we need a PA system. Because the PA systems provide the amplification of the sound for
comfortable listening.
The range of amplification is required for the sound is to be delivered to the distance, size of
the gathering or gathering, etc. Sound quality is also a very important factor with amplification
because it improves the listening experience. The PA system helps to amplify as well as record
the voice of any human being or the sound of any musical instrument. Also, it helps to
communicate between a group.
Basic Block Diagram of PA System
Here, you can see the public address system block diagram and its important blocks.

Components of a PA System
There are so many devices or components are used in PA system that depends upon their
applications and other factors. But the main three components of any public address system are
explained below.
1. Microphone
The microphone is a very important part or component of a PA system. The microphone
basically is a transducer that converts acoustic energy or sound energy into electrical energy. It
continuously generates the pulsating electrical voltage according to the frequency of the sound
energy applied to it. Various types of microphones are used in the PA system. The main basic
two types of microphones are, Handheld Microphone and Lapel Microphone
2. Amplifier
The amplifier is the second part of a PA system. The main function of the amplifier is to amplify
or increase the volume level of the audio signal that can drive a loudspeaker. The requirement
or size of the amplifier depends upon the number and size of the loudspeaker. If the size of the
loudspeaker is very large or so many loudspeakers are to be connected then a very powerful
amplifier is required. The output of the amplifier is measured in watts or kilowatts.
3. Loud Speaker
Loudspeakers play a very important role in the PA system. It converts electrical energy into
acoustic energy or sound energy. The loudspeakers are generally connected to the amplifier and
it generates sound according to the audio signal provided by the amplifier. There are different
types of loudspeakers are available according to their operating frequency.

• Woofer - it operates at the lowest frequency audio signal such as Bass

• Subwoofer - it also operates with low frequency but more than the woofer such as bass
and deep vocals
• Squawker - it operates with medium-frequency audio signals such as vocals
• Tweeter - it operates with high-frequency audio signals such as tone
4. Mixer
A mixer is not a necessary part of a PA system. But if there are multiple audio sources or
multiple microphones used in the PA system then a mixer is must require. The mixer is an
electronic device that can control multiple sound sources simultaneously. It can mix all the
sound sources together and play with a single loudspeaker with the help of an amplifier. So,
the mixer is generally connected before the amplifier. Nowadays, there are so many amplifiers
are available in the market that already have an inbuilt mixer. So, there is no need for an external
additional mixer. All the microphones or sound sources can be connected directly to the
amplifier.

Electronic Instrumentation System

An Electronic Instrumentation System is used to measure, process, display, and record physical
quantities such as temperature, pressure, displacement, flow, speed, etc. It converts a real-world
physical parameter into a meaningful electrical signal, processes it, and gives a useful output
for monitoring or control.

Fig: Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system.

• Transducer All the physical input parameters like temperature, pressure, displacement,
velocity, acceleration and so on will be converted into its proportionate electrical signal.
• Signal Conditioning Unit This working of this unit is exactly the same as that of a signal
processing unit in an analog instrumentation system. It includes all the balancing circuits ad
calibrating elements along with it.
• Scanner/Multiplexer Multiple analog signals are received by this device and are
sequentially provided on to a measuring instrument.
• Signal Converter It is used to convert an analog signal to a form that is acceptable by the
analog to digital converter.
• Analog to (A-D) Digital Converter The analog signal is converted into its proportional
digital signal. The output of an A-D converter is given to a digital display.
• Auxiliary Equipment All the system programming and digital data processing functions
are carried out by this unit. The auxiliary equipment may be a single computer or may be a
collection of individual instruments. Some of its basic functions include linearizing and limit
comparison.
• Digital Recorder Stores or displays the digitized data. It is mostly a CRO or a computer.