Q.

1 Use the internet to write a short report on X-ray crystallography, describing how X-rays can be used to give information on structures of solids as the atomic level. Ans. X- Ray Crystallography: This is the method for determining the arrangement of atoms in a crystal. In this a beam of X-rays is made to strike a crystal which causes the beam to spread into many specific directions. The scattering of beam is elastic. From the angles and intensities of diffraction pattern obtained from X-ray scattering off the periodic assembly of atoms in the crystal, a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal electron density can be reconstructed. Phase information required can be taken from the diffraction data. This electron density can be used to determine the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal as well as their chemical bonds etc. In the experimental setup of X-ray Crystallography, the test crystal is mounted on a goniometer and gradually rotated while being bombarded with X-rays, which produces a diffraction pattern of regularly spaced spots. The two-dimensional images are taken at different rotations and are converted into a three-dimensional model of the density of electrons within the crystal using the chemical data known for the sample.

Q.2 How does the melting point relate to the type of particle and forces present? Ans. The melting point of a compound is the temperature at which a compound turns from a solid to a liquid or a liquid to a solid. The various types of intermolecular force in particles are Hydrogen bonds, ion-dipole interactions, dipole- dipole interaction, dipole-induced dipole interaction, & dispersion forces (in decreasing order of strength). Attraction in particles depends on these intermolecular forces present. Temperature counts for the kinetic energy of particles. More is the temperature more is the kinetic energy. In solid state, Kinetic energy of particles is much less than the attraction forces in the particles. So there is no relative movement of particles. In liquid state, kinetic energy is higher and there is some freedom for particles, where as in the gaseous state there is no interaction in the adjacent molecules. So, melting point is the temperature at which kinetic energy overcomes the intermolecular forces and breaks the bonds in the particles. Thus stronger the intermolecular forces are, higher is the melting point. And intermolecular forces depend on the type of the particles present. Non-polar covalent molecules: London or dispersion forces Polar covalent molecules: Dipole-dipole interactions Ionic compounds and metals: Electrostatic forces

Q.3 Identify the main type of bonding and the type of solid for each of the following: a) SiO2 b) CH4 c) Cr d) Na2S e) C f) CaO Ans. a) SiO2 Type of Bonding: Covalent Bonding Type of Solid: Network Solid b) CH4 Type of Bonding: Covalent Bonding Type of Solid: Molecular Solid c) Cr Type of Bonding: Covalent bonding (Quintuple bond) Type of Solid: atomic solid d) Na2S Type of Bonding: Ionic bonding Type of Solid: Ionic solid (Lattice solid) e) C Type of Bonding: Covalent Bonding Type of Solid: Network Solid f) CaO Type of Bonding: Ionic Bonding Type of Solid: Ionic Solid Q.4 Water beads on the surface of a freshly waxed car hood. Use your knowledge of intermolecular forces to explain this observation. Ans. Wax is hydrophobic in nature, means it repels water. Water has the hydrogen bonding. So water has high affinity for itself and form beads on repulsion from wax because Liquid water has high surface tension due to the attraction between the slight positive and negative charges produced on hydrogen and oxygen atoms respectively. The high surface tension form beads on repulsion from wax as for least surface area, a sphere encloses the largest volume of water. So, spherical shape is most economic to enclose a volume of water. 5. All molecular compounds may have London, dipole-dipole, and hydrogen-bonding intermolecular forces, affecting their chemical and physical properties. Indicate which intermolecular forces contribute to the attraction between molecules in each of the following classes of organic compounds: a) pentane, C5H12 b) 2-propanol, CH3OCH c) acetic acid, CH3COOH

d) e) f) g) h) Ans. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

ethyl benzoate, C6H5COOC2H5 dimethylether, CH3OCH3 ethylamide, CH3CONH2 diamond, C calcium carbonate, CaCO3 pentane, C5H12 : 2-propanol, CH3OCH: acetic acid, CH3COOH : ethyl benzoate C6H5COOC2H5: dimethyl ether, CH3OCH3 : ethylamide, CH3CONH2 : diamond, C : calcium carbonate, CaCO3 : London forces or Dispersion forces Hydrogen Bonding Hydrogen Bonding Dipole-Dipole Interactions Hydrogen Bonding London Forces

Q.6 Use the theory of intermolecular forces to explain the sequence of boiling points in the following alkyl bromides: CH3Br (g) (4 degrees Celsius) C2H5Br (l) (38 degrees Celsius) C3H7Br (l) (71 degrees Celsius) Ans. Boiling point of a compound is the temperature at which the compound changes from liquid to gaseous state. At this temperature, kinetic energy overcomes the intermolecular forces and there is no interaction between adjacent molecules. So, higher the intermolecular forces, higher is the boiling point. Br is highly electronegative as compared to the carbon chain attached to it. Therefore Br will draw electron from adjacent carbon to produce same dipole-dipole interaction in each alkyl bromide. The carbon chains are attached by weak London or Dispersion forces and these forces depend on the size of the carbon chain. Larger the carbon chain, stronger the Dispersion forces. Therefore, C3H7Br has the highest strength of Dispersion forces, it has highest boiling point. CH3Br has the lowest strength of Dispersion forces, it has lowest boiling point. C2H5Br has the intermediate strength of Dispersion forces of other molecules. So, boiling point also falls between the other molecules.

Q.7 Compare the particles and forces in the following pairs of solids: (4 marks) a) metallic and covalent b) molecular and ionic Ans. a) Metallic Particles: Delocalized electrons & Electron sharing atoms Forces: metallic bond

Covalent Particles: Atoms Forces: Covalent Bonding b) Molecular Particles: Non- polar covalent molecules Forces: Hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interaction, London forces Ionic Particles: negatively or positively charged ions Forces: Ion-ion Interactions (Ionic Bonding)