CHAPTER

CONIC SECTIONS
67.

VIII

AND EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND DEGREE

Equation in polar coordinates. The locus of a point P is called a conic section* if the ratio of its distances from a fixed F is called the focus, point 'F and a fixed line DD is constant. DD the directrix, and the constant ratio the eccentricity. The
line

through the focus perpendicular to the directrix

is

called

the principal axis.

Theorem

I.

pal axis of
(I)

If the pole is the focus and the polar axis the princi-' conic section, then the polar equation of the conic is

1
e is the eccentricity

ep ecosO
is

where

and p

the distance

from

the directrix

to the focus.

Proof.

Let

P be

any point on the

conic.

Then, by definition,

EP
From
and
the figure,

FP _ ~

FP =

p
0.

EP =

HM = p -f p cos

Substituting these values of

FP and n

EP, we have

p
or,

cos 6

solving for

p,

6 COS

Q.E.D.

Because these curves with a plane.

may be

regarded as the intersections of a cone of revolution

149

150

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
(I)

From
1.

we
is

see that

A conic
6)

symmetrical with respect to the principal

e f or 6 changes only the

axis.

For substituting
cos
(

form

= cos 0.

of the equation, since

In plotting, no values of need be excluded. properties to be discussed (p. 127) show that three cases must be considered according as e = 1.
2.

The other

The parabola e

1.

When
~

= 1,
p

(I)

becomes

- cos 0'
=
?r

and the locus

1.

is

called a parabola.

For

= oo,

and for

p="|-

The parabola

therefore crosses the principal axis but once at the point O,

called the vertex,

way between
2.

which and DD.

is

to the left of the focus

F
0,

or mid-

becomes
cos

infinite

when

the denominator, 1

cos

vanishes.

If 1

= 0,

then cos
it

= 1;
When
cos cos

and hence
is infinite.

=
from

is

the only
TT

value less than 2

for

which p
3.

increases

to
0,

D
then
1

decreases from 1 to
increases from

to 1,
oo to

p decreases from

p,

and the point P (p, from infinity to B.

0) describes

the parabola

When
then
1
cos
cos

increases from
to
to 2,
1,

to

TT,

decreases from
increases

from 1

p decreases from

to

^? &

and the point

vertex
0.

P (p,

0)

describes the parabola from

to the

CONIC SECTIONS

151

account of the symmetry with respect to the axis, when 3 TT increases from TT to -^- P (p, 0) describes the parabola from
>

On

,,

to B*\

and when
e

6 increases

from

- to 2
a

TT,

from

13'

to infinity.

When

<1

an hyperbola.
curves are
The
1.

the conic is called an ellipse, and when e > 1, The points of similarity and difference in these brought out by considering them simultaneously.
ellipse,

e<\.
ep
1

The hyperbola,

> 1.
e

For

l-e
p,

1.

For

ep

l-e

l-e

As

< 1,

the denominator, and hence

As e > 1,
is

the denominator, and hence

p, is

positive, so that

we obtain a point
as e

A
>
jfe

on the
As -^
l

ellipse to the right of F.

negative, so that we obtain a on the hyperbola to the left point

~ e<

when e<l, according

ofF.
As
then

then

FA may be greater, equal to, or

l-e
;

>1
so

(numerically)

when e>l,
H.

less

than FH.

lies

to the left of

J
positive,

p.

pis

For0 =
positive,

7f/>

ep

1-fe and hence we obtain a point

1+e

+e

p.

pis
sec-

A'

to the left of F.

and hence we obtain a ond point A' to the left of F.

As
1

As 1

<1, then p<p;

e

BO A" lies

<1. then
e
J^.

p<p:

so

A'

lies

between

H and
^.'

F.

between
-4

H and

A
the

and

are called the vertices of

and A' are

called the vertices of

ellipse.

the hyperbola.

152
The
2.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
ellipse, e

< 1.
2.

The hyperbola, e>l.

p

becomes
1

infinite if

becomes
1

infinite if

e cos e

or

= 0, cos e = e

e cos

or

cos

= 0, =e

As e<l, then ->1; and hence

there are no values of
p for

As e>l, then -<1; and hence

e

which

there are two values of

p becomes infinite.
3.

for

which

becomes
3.

infinite.

When
increases from
to
,

When
increases from
to cos-1

(
)

then
1

cos

decreases from

to 0,
;

then
l

cos

decreases from 1 to e
1

e cos

increases from 1
p decreases from
L

e to 1

ecos0 increases from

p decreases
0)

- e to
ep
to

hence

to ep,
&

hence

from

oo,

and P (p, A to C.

0)

describes the ellipse from

and P(p,
infinity.

describes the lower half

of the left-hand branch

from

to

When
- \ tO
I

7f
>

(1 e/
then
1

2
0,

cos

decreases from - to
e

e cos

increases
p

hence

from decreases from

to 1

oo to ep,

0) describes the upper part of the right-hand branch from infinity to

and P (p,

"When
then cos
1

increases from
2

to

it,

When
1,

increases from

to
to

TT,

decreases from
increases
p decreases
0)

to
1 to 1

then cos
;

decreases from
increases
p decreases

1,
;

e cos

from

+e
-(-

e cos

from

1 to 1 4- e

hence

from ep to
1

hence

from ep to

and

P (p,

describes the ellipse from

to A'.

The

rest of the ellipse,

A'C'A,
axis.

may

be obtained from the symmetry

with respect to the principal

and P (p, 0) describes the hyperbola from C to A'. The rest of the hyperbola, A'C' to infinity and infinity to A, may be obtained from the symmetry with
respect to the principal axis.

1+e

The

ellipse is

a dosed curve.

The hyperbola has two

branches.

infinite

CONIC SECTIONS
PROBLEMS
1. Plot and discuss the following conies. focus and directrix of each.

153

Find

and p, and draw the

W, = -^ - cos
i

<e)

- cos e

- 2 cos
-

cos 9

- 4 cos

2. Transform the equations in problem 1 into rectangular coordinates, simplify by the Rule on p. 141, and discuss the resulting equations. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix in the new

variables.

Plot the locus of each equation,

its

focus,

and

directrix

on the

new

axes.

Ana.

(a)

4z, (1,0), x

= - 1.

,
(d)
2/2

_' =
6x,
(|,

27

S.

Transform
if (a)

(I)

dinates of the focus

into rectangular coordinates, simplify, and find the coorand the equation of the directrix in the new rectangular
1, (b)

coordinates

(a) ?/

=
r2

-ZL.B1. ( --^-, 0), 22 'V 1 _ e2 )

?y 2

C2 0)

V = -- _ 1

(1

l-e

154
4.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Derive the equation of a conic section when
the directrix
;

(a)

the focus

lies to

the

left of

(b) the polar axis is parallel to the directrix.

Ans.
5.

(a),=

:
,

1 -f e

cos 6
e

(b) ,

=
I

e sin 6

Plot and discuss the following conies.

Find

and

p,

and draw the

directrix of each.

(a)

=
1

+
-

cos*'

(C) P

=
3

10 cose'

(b) p

=
1

?
sin B

(d) p

=
3

- si

68.

Transformation to rectangular coordinates.

II. If the origin is the focus and the X-axis the princiaxis of a conic section, then its equation is pal

Theorem

where

is

the eccentricity

and x

= p = ep.
x
ex
(p.

is

the equation of the

directrix.

Proof.

Clearing fractions in
p

(I), p.

149,

we

obtain

ep cos

Set p

Vx

-f-

and p cos
~vx'
2 -f-

131).

This gives

= ep,
-J-

or

i
Squaring and

v x2

-J-

= ex

ep.

collecting like

required equation. units to the left of

69. Simplification

powers of x and y, we have the Since the directrix (Fig., p. 149) lies p

DD

its

equation

is

=p.

Q.E.D.

and discussion of the equation

in rectangu-

lar coordinates.

The parabola, e
(II)

1.

When

= 1,

becomes

Applying the Rule on p. 141, we substitute x = x + h, y = y' 4- k, (1)

1

obtaining
2

(2)

y'

- 2px' + 2ky' +

k2

- 2ph -p = Q.
z

CONIC SECTIONS

155

Set the coefficient of y' and the constant term equal to zero This gives solve for h and k.

Substituting these values in (2) and dropping primes, the equation of the parabola becomes y 2 2px. From (3) we see that the origin has been

removed from
parabola.

to 0, the vertex of the

It is easily seen that the

new
and x'
is

coordinates of the focus are

) ,

the

new
i-

equation

of

the

I directrix

-(III)

Hence

III. If the origin is the vertex and the X-axis the axis a parabola, then its equation is of

Theorem

y
is

The focus

the point

_p
2'

I,

and

the equation of the directrix

general discussion of (III) gives us the following properties of the parabola in addition to those already obtained
(p.
1.

150). It passes

through the origin but does not cut

the axes elsewhere.

of

Values of x having the sign opposite to that are to be excluded (Rule, p. 66). Hence tl:o curve lies to the right of YY' when p is positive ar.d
2.

to the
3.

left

when p

is

negative.
;

values of y are to be excluded curve extends indefinitely up and down.

No

hence

this-

Theorem IV. If the origin is the vertex and the Y-axis the axis of a parabola, then its equation is
(IV)

2py.

156

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
/
is

The focus

the point

0,

p\ -

and

the equation of the directrix

Proof. Transform (III) by rotating the

axes through
give us for

Equations

(II), p. 138,

=
,

=y = y
x

x>-

Substituting in (III) and dropping primes,

After rotating the axes the whole figure
is

we

obtain x*
Y'

= 2py.
Q.E.D.

turned through

in the positive direction.

The parabola lies above or below the X-axis according as p is positive or negative.

Equations (III) and (IV) are called

the typical forms of the equation of the
parabola.

Equations of the forms

Ax 2
where A, E,
C,

-f

Ey

and Cy 2

-f-

Dx

= 0,

and

are different from zero, may, by transposition and division, be written in one
of the typical forms (III) or (IV), so that in each case the locus is a

parabola.
Ex.
1.

Plot the locus of x 2

+ 4y =

and

find the focus

Solution.

and

directrix.

The given equation may be

written

Comparing with
Ex.
(3,

Its focus is therefore the point (0,

2.

for which (IV), the locus is seen to be a parabola 1) and its directrix the line y

p=I.

2.

- 2)

Find the equation and whose directrix

of the parabola whose vertex is the point (X 3. is parallel to the F-axis, if p

CONIC SECTIONS
Solution.

157

Referred to O'X' and O'F' as axes, the equation of the parabola

III)
-,,'2

(Theorem
k

_A

/>.'

'

-O

The equation
to (y are

for translating the axes

from

(Theorem I, p. 136) x = x' + 3, y = y' -2,

x'

whence
(5)

= x - 3,
(4),

y'

y,+

2.

Substituting in

we iHkin

as the re-

O'

quired equation
(y

+ 2)* = 0(a&-8
6x

or

4y

-f

22

=
and the equa-

Referred to O'JT' and O'F', the coordinates

of

are

(Theorem
is x'

III) (|, 0)
.

tion of

DD

.f

By

(5)

we

referred to
of

OX and
|.

OF, the coordinates

see that, of .Fare

(f,

2)

and the equation

DD is x =

PROBLEMS
1.

Plot the locus of the following equations.

Draw

the focus

and

direc-

trix in

each case.

(a) y2

(b)
(c)

= 4x. + 4x = o. x2 -82/ = 0.
2/2

(d )
(e)
(f)

3,2

z2
2/

_ 63 = 0. + 10 y = 0. 2 + x = 0.

2.

If the directrix is parallel to

the F-axis, find the equation of the

parabola for which

(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)
3.

p p p p

= 6, if the vertex is (3, 4). = - 4, if the vertex is (2, - 3). = 8, if the vertex is (- 5, 7). = 4, if the vertex is (h, k).

Ans. (y

Ans.
Ans. Ans.

- 4) 2 = 12 (x - 3). + 3) 2 = -8(x-2) (y-7) 2 = 16(x + 5). y-k* = Sx-h.

(2/

The chord through the focus perpendicular to the

Find the length of the latus rectum of y 2
is

axis

is

called the latus

rectum.
4.

2px.
is

Ans. 2 p.
2

the equation of the parabola whose axis of y and whose vertex is the point (a, /S) ? -4ns. (x
5.

What

parallel to the axis

a)

= 2p (y

/3).

(a)

Transform to polar coordinates and discuss the resulting equations y 2 = 2 px, (b) x2 = 2py.
Prove that the abscissas of two points on the parabola
(III) are

6.

propor-

tjonal to the squares of the ordinates of those points,

158
70.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Simplification and discussion of the equation in rectanCentral cpnics, e J 1. When e ^ 1, equation

gular coordinates.
(II), p. 154, is
(1

- e )x + y -2 e px - e p = 0.
2 2 2
2 2 2

To simplify
which gives

(Kule, p. 141), set

-2 p
2 e'

2
2

pk

-e p 2
Setting the coefficients of x' and y' equal to zero gives

2 h (1

p=

0,

2 k

= 0,

whence
(3)

= 0.
we
obtain

Substituting in (2) and dropping primes,

or

= 1.
^
2

This is obtained by transposing the constant term, dividing dividing numerator and denominator of the first fraction by 1

by

it,
.

and then

e2

The

ellipse, e

< 1.
From
tive

The hyperbola, e>l.

(3) it is

From (3) it is seen that h is positive when e <l. Hence the new origin O lies to the right of the focus F.

seen that h

is

negaori-

when

> 1.
the
e2 e2

Hence the new

left

gin

lies to

of the focus F.

Further,
1

>1
;

numerically, so
the

h > p numerically and hence new origin lies to the left of directrix DD.

the

CONIC SECTIONS
The
V,
locus of (4)
is

159

p. 66).

Hence

is

symmetrical with respect to YY' (Theorem the middle point of A A'. Construct in

either figure F'

with respect to
directrix.

and D'D' symmetrical respectively to F and DD YY'. Then F' and D'D' are a new focus and

For let P and P f be two points on the curve, symmetrical with respect to FF7 Then from the symmetry PF = P'F' and PE = P'E'. But since, by definition,
-=

PF =
IT Hi

P'F'
e,

then

= e.

Hence the same conic

is

traced by P', using F' as focus

Jit

and D'D' as

directrix, as is traced

by P, using

F as focus and DD as directrix.

Since the locus of (4)

is

(Theorem V, p. 66), symmetry is called the center. Hence a central conic has two foci and two directrices. The co6rdiriates of the focus F in either figure are

it is

symmetrical with respect to the origin called a central conic, and the center of

For the old coordinates of

nates are x

F were

(0, 0).

Substituting in

(1),

the

new

coordi-

= - h,

y'

=-

k, or,

from

(3),

( -

-^^ V

The coordinates of

F' are therefore

rM1
e
2

The new equation

of the directrix

DD

is

^
JL

t)

160
For from
(Theorem
II)

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
(1)

and

(3),

1-e 2

and dropping primes, we obtain

= y'. x =
-

Substituting in x

Hence the equation

of D'D' is

P = _

We

thus have the

is

Lemma. The equation of a central conic whose center and whose principal axis is the X-axis is

the origin

W
^
'

^**/v-k-

r^ + n

T2

= 1.

(1
Its foci are the

_
(

1-e
>

points

and

its directrices

are the lines x

1-e

The

ellipse,

e<\.
(6)

TAe hyperbola, e>l.

For convenience
(5)

set
c

For convenience

set

ep

_e*~
I-.

1-e 2
6 2 are the

o=

ep

1-e2

1-e 2

denominators in (4) and and c is the abscissa of one focus. Since 2 e<l, 1-e 2 is positive; and hence a, ft
2
,

a2 and - 6 2 are the denominators in (4) and c is the abscissa of one focus. Siuce e > 1, 1- e* is negative; and hence a, 6 2 rnd
,

and

c are positive.

c arepositfiue.

We have at once
a2

We have
*>2-n2

at once
,,9^9

- 62 =
(1

*,2-n2

^5^2

a2
e2 ) 2

1.-

ft

_
(1

e2)

(1

e2 )

and
a2
c

and
a2

(1-e2

2
)

1-e2
a2
c

1-e2

_ ~
Hence the

1-e2
directrices

Hence the
the lines x

directrices

(Lemma) are

(Lemma) are

the lines x

=
from
(6) in (4)

By
obtain

substitution

from

(5) in (4)

we

By
obtain

substitution

we

A*
CONIC SECTIONS
161

I
2/

The

ellipse, e

< 1.
x =
is

The

6.

intercepts are 2 a -4.4'

a and
the

The

The hyperbola, e>l. intercepts are x = a, but the

called

major axis and axis. Since a 2

BB'

= 2b the minor b2 = c 2 is positive,

is

hyperbola does not cut the Y-axis. AA' = 2 a is called the transverse
axis
axis.

and BB'

= 26

the

conjugate

then a
greater

and the major axis than the minor axis.

6,

>

Hence we may
as follows.

restate the

Lemma

Hence we may
as follows.

restate the

Lemma

Theorem V. The equation of an whose center is the origin and whose foci are on the X-axis is
ellipse
:/'

Theorem VI. The equation of an hyperbola whose center is the origin and whose foci are on the X-axis is
<

v/

vi >
is

S-S =1
If c 2
(

where 2 a

is

the

minor

axis.
(

major axis and 2 b the 2 az ft2 then the If c

where 2 a

the transverse axis

and 2b
2
ft

the conjugate axis.

=a +
0)

2
,

foci are

c,

0)

and

the directrices

then the foci are

directrices are

c,

and

the

are x

a2
c

a2
c

Equations
p.

(5)

also enabje us to
(I),

express e and p, the constants of

149, in terms of a,
6,

and

c,

the

Equations (6) also enable us to express e and p, the constants of (I), p. 149, in terms of a, 6, and c, the
constants of (VI).

constants of (V).

For

For

a
and
v
'

=
and

M=
c

162
The
ellipse,

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
e<l.
;

The hyperbola, e>\.

In the figure

OB = b, OF' = c and since c 2 = a2 - 6 2 then BF' = a. Hence to -draw the foci, with B as a
In the figure
,

OB =
,

b,

OA'

center and radius

cutting

OA,
and

describe arcs
F'.

Then and F' are the foci. If a = 6, then (V) becomes

at

XX'

and since c 2 = a2 + 6 2 then BA' = c. Hence to draw the foci, with O as a center and radius BA', describe arcs Then F cutting XX' at F and F'. and F' are the foci. If a = b, then (VI) becomes
x2

x2

+
a

aa

y2

a2

whose locus

is

circle.

whose locus
hyperbola.

is

called

an

equilateral

Transform (V) by rotating the

axes through an angle of
Tt

Transform (VI) by rotating the

axes through an angle of
(Theo-

(Theo-

rem

II, p. 138).

We

obtain

rem

II, p. 138).

We obtain

Theorem VII. The equation of an whose center is the origin and whose foci are on the Y-axis is
ellipse

Theorem VET The equation of an hyperbola whose center is the origin and whose foci are on the Y-axis is
<

(VII)

vm

>

-+

=l

'

D
X'
D'

where 2 a
the.

is

the

minor

axis.

major axis and 2 b is 2 2 If c = a - 62 the

,

where 2 a
is the

is the

transverse axis

and 2b

foci are

(0,

c)

and
a2
-

the directrices

2 2 2 conjugate axis. Ifc = a + b , the foci are (0, and the directrices c)

are the lines y

are the lines y

a2
.

CONIC SECTIONS
The
ellipse,

163

e<\.
between

The hyperbola, e>l.

The

essential difference

The
cient of

essential difference
is

between

(V) and (VII) is that in (V) the denominator of x2 is larger than that of y 2 while in (VII) the denominator
,

(VI) and (VIII)

2

that the coeffi-

of y* is the larger. (V) and (VII) are called the typical forms of the

y is negative in (VI), while in (VIII) the coefficient of x2 is negative. (VI) and (VIII) are called the
typical

forms of the equation of an

equation of an

ellipse.

hyperbola.

An

equation of the form

Ax 2
where A,
C,

+ Cif + F =

0,

and

are all different

from

zero,

may always

be

written in the form

By transposing the constant term and then dividing by it, and dividing numerator and denominator of the resulting fractions by A and C respectively.

The
1.

locus of this equation will be

ellipse if

a and ft are both positive, a 2 will be equal to the larger denominator and b'2 to the smaller. a 2 will be 2. An hyperbola if a. and ft have opposite signs, 2 equal to the positive denominator and b to the negative denominator.
3.

An

If

a and

ft

are both negative, (11) will have no locus.

directrices,

Ex. 1. Find the axes, foci, 2 eccentricity of the ellipse 4 x

Solution.

and

y2

16.

Dividing by 16,

we
!.

obtain

*+* = 4 16
The second denominator comparison with (VII),
W-

is

the larger.

By

= 4,

a2
6

16,

c2

16

4
c

Hence
The

2,
is

= 4,

= 12. = Vl2.

positive sign only

a, b,

used when we extract the

c are essentially positive.

square root, because

and

164

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
axis

are the points

are y

Hence the major ?aaa_AA' = 8, the minor "^12), and the equations (0,

BB' =

4,

the foci

a2
c

16

-'

of the directrices

F and F' DD and D'l/

Vl2
and
(9),

Vl2.
4
1 = - Vl2.

From

(7)

Vl2 = - - and p = 4

V12

PROBLEMS
1
.

Plot the

loci, directrices,

and

foci of the following equations

and

find

= 81.
2 - 16 2 = 144. y (b) 9 x 2 2 = 25. (c) 16 x + y

(e)
(f )

9y 2 - 4x2 =
x2

36.

y2

25.

(g)

4 x2

(d)
2.

4x2 + 9y 2 =
Find on
a a

36.

(h)

5x 2

+ 7 y 2 = 13. - 3y 2 = 14.
is

foci are
(a)

the equation of the ellipse the .X-axis if

whose center

the origin

and whose

(b)
(c)

(d)

= 5, = 6, 6 = 4, c = 8,

= 3. = $. c = 3. e = f.
b
e

Ans. 9x2 + 25 y2 = 225. Ans. 32 x2 + 36 y2 = 1152. Ans. 16 x 2 + 25 y 2 = 400. 4ns. 5x 2 + 9y 2 = 720.

is

3. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose center whose foci are on the JT-axis if

the origin and

= 3, (b)a = 4, =f (c) e (d) c = 8,

(a)

= 5. = 5. a = 5. e = 4.
6
c

Ans. 25 x2 - 9y 2 = 225. Ans. 9x2 16 y 2 = 144. Ans. 5 x 2 - 4 y 2 = 125. 4ns. 15x 2 - y 2 = 60.

4.

Show

that the latus rectum (chord through the focus perpendicular to

the principal axis) of the ellipse and hyperbola

5.
6.

252
is
.

a
?

What

is

the eccentricity of an equilateral hyperbola

to polar coordinates

Ans.

V2.

Transform (V) and (VI)

and discuss the resulting

equations.
7. 8.

Where

are the foci and directrices of the circle ?

are the equations of the ellipse and hyperbola whose centers are the point (a, /3) and whose principal axes are parallel to the X-axis?

What

W_ ~~ + ~~*

-aO 2

(if

-.

~ (* -~ <*)*

(V

W ~

CONIC SECTIONS
71.

165

Conjugate hyperbolas and asymptotes.

Two

hyperbolas

are called conjugate hyperbolas if the transverse and conjugate axes of one are respectively the conjugate and transverse axes of the other. They will have the same center and their principal
(p. 149) will be perpendicular. If the equation of an hyperbola is given in typical form, then the equation of the conjugate hyperbola is found by changing the

axes

signs of the coefficients of

x 2 and y* in the given equation.

For if one equation be written in the form (VI) and the other in the form (VIII), then the positive denominator of either is numerically the same as the negative denominator of the other. Hence the transverse axis of either is the conjugate
axis of the other.

Thus the
(1)

loci of the

equations

16z 2

?/2

16 and

-I6x* + y*=
2

16

are conjugate hyperbolas.

a;2

They may be written

2

X y ___ = land __ + y

=1

The

foci of the first are

on the

Jf-axis, those of the

second on the F-axis.

The

transverse axis of the first and the conjugate axis of the second are equal to 2, while the conjugate axis of the first and the transverse axis of the second are

equal to

8.

The

foci of

two conjugate hyperbolas are equally distant from

the origin.
For c2 (Theorems VI and VIII) equals the sum of the squares of the semitransverse and semi-conjugate axes, and that sum is the same for two conjugate
hyperbolas.

Thus

in the first of the hyperbolas above c2

= 1 + 16,

while in the second

If in one of the typical forms of the equation of an hyperbola we replace the constant term by zero, then the locus of the new

equation

is

a pair of lines (Theorem,

p.

59) which are called the

asymptotes of the hyperbola.

Thus the asymptotes

(2)
'are

of the hyperbola

bV - aY = <*?&
the lines

(3) or (4)

bW - aY = 0,
bx
-f

ay

and bx

ay

= 0.

166
Both of these
(5)

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
lines pass

through the origin, and their slopes are respectively

--and--

An

important property of the asymptotes

is

given by
its

Theorem IX.
totes as

The branches of the hyperbola approach

asymp-

they recede to infinity.

Proof. Let P (x ly y-^) be a point on either branch of (2) near The distance from this line to the first of the asymptotes (4).

P^Fig.,
x/>>.

p.

167)

is

(Rule, p. 97)
T

bx l

-\-

+ V& 2 -f
Since

ay i a2

lies

on

(2),

b^x^
bx l

ahj^

Factoring,

+ ay =
+a
2

Substituting in (6),

=
bx

As PI

recedes to infinity, x
zero.

and y

become

infinite

and d

approaches

For bxi and ay^ cannot cancel, since Xi and y have opposite signs and fourth quadrants.

in the second

Hence the curve approaches

closer

and

closer to its asymptotes.

Q.E.D.

Two

conjugate hyperbolas have the same asymptotes.

For if we replace the constant term in both equations by zero, the resulting equations differ only in form and hence have the same loci. Thus the asymptotes of the conjugate hyperbolas (1) are respectively the loci of
16a;2

_ yz - o

and -!Qx*

+ y 2 = 0,
fair

which are the same.

An

hyperbola

may
Lay

be drawn with

accuracy by the

fol-

lowing
Construction.
foci
lie,
1

and

OB =

OA = OA = a on the axis on which the = b on the other axis. Draw lines through OB'
off
'

A,

A
*

B, B' parallel to the axes, forming a rectangle.*

Draw

the

An ellipse may be drawn with fair accuracy by inscribing it in such a rectangle.

CONIC SECTIONS
diagonals of the rectangle and the circumscribed circle. the branches of the

167

Draw

hyperbola tangent to
the sides of the rectangle at A and A' and approaching nearer

and nearer to the

agonals.

di-

The

conju-

gate hyperbola may be drawn tangent to

the sides of the rec-

tangle

at

and B'
foci of both are the points

and approaching the diagonals. The in which the circle cuts the axes.

The diagonals will be the asymptotes, because two of the vertices of the recHalf the diagonal will equal c, 6) will lie on each asymptote (4) tangle ( i a, a2 + 62 the distance from the origin to the' foci, because c2
.

72 The equilateral hyperbola referred to its asymptotes. of the equilateral hyperbola (p. 162) is
.

The equation

(1)

x2
Its

- y2 =
and x

a2

asymptotes are the lines

x
be used as coordinate axes.

-f

= 0.
and hence they may
to its

These lines are perpendicular (Corollary

III, p. 78),

Theorem X.

The equation of an equilateral hyperbola referred

totes is

asymp-

(X)
Proof.

2jcy

=a

z.

The axes must be rotated through

to coincide with the asymptotes. Hence we substitute (Theorem II, p. 138)

X
in (1).

=
V2

X'

-}-

This gives
(z'

+
2

y')

(-

Or, reducing

and dropping primes,

2xy

Q.E.D.

168

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

73. Focal property of central conies. a conic to a focus is called a focal radius.

A line joining a point on

Two
focal radii, one to

each focus,
conic.

may

evidently be drawn from any point on a central

Theorem XI.
radii

The sum of from any point on an

the focal
ellipse is

Theorem Xn.
focal radii

The difference of the

from any point on an

equal to the transverse

equal to the major axis 2 a.

hyperbola
axis 2 a.

is

Proof.
ellipse.

Let

P be

any point on the

Proof.

Let

P be

any point on the

By

definition (p. 149),

hyperbola.

Hence

= e-PE, r' = e- PE'. r + r = e (PE + PE') = e-HH'.

7

By definition (p. 149), r = e-PE, r' = e PE'. Hence r' - r e (PW PE)

=
From
(8), p.

e-

HH'.

From

(7), p. 161,

a
of the direc-

161,

e=

-,

trices

and from the equations (Theorem V),

a2
c

and from the equations trices (Theorem VI),

of the direc-

Hence

= --2

2o.
Q.E.D.

Hence r'-r

= --2- =
a
c

Q.E.D.

74. Mechanical construction of conies. Theorems XI and XII afford simple methods of drawing ellipses and hyperbolas. Place two tacks in the drawing board at the foci F and F' and wind a string about them as indicated. If the string be held fast at A, and a pencil be placed in the loop FPF' and be moved so as to keep the string taut, then PF + PFf is constant and

P describes
loop

an

ellipse.

If the

major axis

is

to be 2 a, then the length of the

FPF' must

be 2

a.

CONIC SECTIONS
If the pencil
let

169

out at

at the

be tied to the string at P, and both strings be pulled hi or PF will be constant and P will same time, then

PF

describe

an hyperbola.

If the transverse axis is to

be 2

a,

be adjusted at the start so that the difference between

PF' and PF equals

the strings must 2 a.

directrix DZ>.

on the describe a parabola, place a right triangle with one leg Fasten one end of a string whose length is at the focus With a pencil at keep the F, and the other end to the triangle at A. the and as the triangle is moved along Then string taut.

To

EB

AE

PF = PE

DD

point

will describe

a parabola.

PROBLEMS
1. Find the equations of the asymptotes and hyperbolas conjugate to the following hyperbolas, and plot.

(a)

4z2 -

2
?/

36.

(c)

16z 2

2 ^Jb) 9 a

25 y 2

= 100.

2 (d) 8 x

- y2 + 64 = 0. - 16 y* + 25 = 0.
first

2.

Prove Theorem IX for the asymptote which passes through the

and third quadrants.

3.

If e

and

ef

are the eccentricities of

two conjugate hyperbolas, then

4.

The distance from an asymptote

6.

of

an hyperbola

to its foci is

numer-

ically equal to
5.

The distance from a The product

is

line

dicular to an asymptote, to the center

6.

through a focus of an hyperbola, perpenis numerically equal to a.

of the distances

from the asymptotes to any point on the on the parabola y*

hyperbola
7.

constant.

The

focal radius of a point PI(XI, yi)

= 2px

is

f-,

170
8.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
y { ) on the
2 2 ellipse 6 x

The

focal radii of a point PI(ZI,

ex\

a 2?/ 2

a 262

are r
9.

and

r'

+ +

exi.

The

focal radii of a point

e&i

= exi r = - exi
r 10.
is

a and r' a and r'

=-

on the hyperbola 6 2x2 a 2 ?/ 2 = a2 6 2 are a when PI is on the right-hand branch, or exi + a when Pj. is on the left-hand branch.
equilateral hyperbola to the center radii of the point.

The distance from a point on an mean proportional between the focal

11. The eccentricity of of one asymptote.

an hyperbola equals the secant of the inclination

75. Types of loci of equations of the second degree. All of the equations of the conic sections that we have considered are If the axes be moved in any manner, the of the second degree.
still be of the second degree (Theorem IV, p. 140), form may be altered considerably. We have now to although -consider the different possible forms of loci of equations of the

equation will
its

second degree.

By Theorem

VI,

p. 145,

the term in xy

may

be removed by

rotating the axes. of the form

(1)

Hence we only need

to consider

an equation

Ax*

+ Cy* + Dx + Ey + F=0.
two
cases.
is zero.

It is necessary to distinguish

CASE CASE

I.

Neither
Either

II.

A nor C A or C is

zero.
(1)

and

C cannot both

be zero, as then

would not be

of the second degree.

Case

I A

When

neither

nor

is zero,

and hence (Theorem VII, x and y by translating the

p.

4 A C is not zero, we can remove the terms in p. 146) Then (1) becomes (Corollary I, axes.

then

=B

147)

(2)

Ax

12

+ cy + F =
2
1

0.

We distinguish two types of

same or
different signs.

loci

according as

A and C have

the

CONIC SECTIONS
Elliptic type,

171

and

have the

Hyperbolic type,

A
v2

and

have

dif-

same
1.

sign.

ferent signs.
0.*

F ^
/

Then
1

(2)

may be

1.

F'

0.*

Then

(2)
1,
'

may

be

written

= 1,

x2
written

+
'

where
Hence,
ellipse;
if

where
the sign of F' is different and C, the locus is an

from that of
but

A
if

foci are

same as that
locus.
2.

of

the sign of F' is the and C, there is no

Hence the locus is an hyperbola whose on the Y-axis if the signs of F* and A are the same, or on the X-axis if the signs of F' and C are
the same.
2.

a point. It may be regarded as an ellipse whose axes are zero and it is called
0.
is

F'

The locus

F'

0.

The locus
It

intersecting lines.

may

is a pair of be regarded

as an hyperbola whose axes are zero

a degenerate

ellipse.

and

it is

called a degenerate hyperbola.

Case II

When

either

or

is

zero the locus

is

parabolic type.

We can
Cif

always

suppose A =

said to belong to the and C 0, so that

=

(1) becomes
(3)

+ Dx + Ey + F = 0.
becomes ^z 2

For

if

and (7=0,

(1)

+ Dx + Ey + F=0.
x'.

Rotate the axes

(Theorem II,

p. 138) through

by

setting
is

x=y',y=
form
(3).

This equation becomes

Ay 2 + Ex' -Dy' + F=0, which

of the

By
(4)

translating the axes (3)

may
r

be reduced to one of the forms

Cif

(5)

+ Dx = or cy + F =o.
y

For substitute
This gives
(6)

in (3),

x
/2

= x" -f A,

=
?/'

y'

&.

C?/

+ Da/ + 2 C'fc

If

we determine h and k from

reduces to

+ CW =0. + Dh + Ek +F
solve the last equation for h, so In this case (6) reduces to (5).

then
that

(6)

(4).

But

if

D = 0, we cannot
the constant term.

we cannot always remove

*

Read " F' not equal

" to zero or "F' different

from zero."

172
Comparing
ola.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
(4)

with (III),
is

p. 155,

the locus

is

seen to be &parab-

The
1

locus of (5)

the pair of parallel lines y

=
is

^
line

~F'

when F and C have different signs, or the single when F' = 0. If F and C have the same sign, there
1

y
locus.

no

the locus of an equation of the second degree is a pair of parallel lines or a single line it is called a degenerate parabola. have thus proved

When

We

Theorem XIII.
a
conic,

The

locus of

a point, or a pair of straight

the axes its equation

an equation of the second degree is lines, which may be coincident.

By moving
forms

may
2

be reduced to one of the three

Ax 2 +
where A
,

C,

+ F* = 0, Cy + Dx = 0, and D are different from zero.

Cy*

Cif

+ F* =

0,

Corollary.

The

locus of

an equation in which the term in xy

is

lacking,
will belong to

Ax * + C f + Dx

+ E?/ + F = 0,

the parabolic type if the elliptic type if

the hyperbolic

A = or C = 0, A and C have the same sign, type if A and C have different signs.
PROBLEMS

To what

point

is

the origin

moved

to

transform

(1)
-

into (2) ?
/

Ans
2.

D -'- E

To what

point

is

the origin

moved

to transform (3) into (4) ?

into (5) ?

3. (b) if

Simplify

E = 0,

Ax* + Dx + Ey and find the point

+ F=Ql)y translating the

to

axes

(a) if

E -^ 0,

which the origin

(a)

is

moved.

A,

A* + Ey = 0, (it is

* In describing the final form of the equation what terms are different from those in (1).

unnecessary to indicate by primes

CONIC SECTIONS
4.

173

To what types do the loci of 2 - 13x 2 + 7y - 1 = (a) 4z +?/ 2 - 4 y + 9 = 0. (b) y + 3x

(c)

the following equations belong ?

0. (e)

x2

_^C

(f)

x2 + y 2

121 x 2

44 y 2

(d)
(i)

x2

+4y-3

+ 68 x = 0.
in

= 0.
1, p.

ij
!

y(g)

The equations

problem

'(h) 148, wfiich

+ 7 y 2 - Sx + 1 = 0. - 6x + 8 = 0. 3x 2 -4?/ 2 -6y + 9 = 0. x 2 -8x + 9?/- 11 =0.

?/

do not contain the xy-term.

76.

degree.
(1 )
it

Construction of the locus of an equation of the second To remove the ajy-term from

Ax 2
necessary to rotate the axes through an angle B such that
p.

is

(Theorem VI,
(2)

145)

tan 2

B
A

-C
we need

while in the formulas for rotating the axes [(II), p. 138] sin and cos 0. By 1 and 3, p. 12, we have
cos 2 6

(3)

+ taii
(2)

20

From

we can choose 2

the sign in (3) must be the same as in (2).

in the first or second quadrant so 6 will then be acute

;

and from

15, p. 13,

we have
1

cos 2

+ cos 2 B
(1)

(4)

In simplifying a numerical equation of the form

simplified, putation the terms in x and y (Theorem VII, Hence we have the
is

the com-

if

A = J52

AC

0,

by

first

removing

p.

146) and then the xy-term.

Rule
degree.

to construct

the locus of a numerical equation of the second

First step.

Compute A

=B

4 A C.

Second

step.

(a) translating
(b)

Simplify the equation by and then rotating the axes if A = 0; rotating and then translating the axes if A = 0.

174
Third
step.
(

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Determine the nature of the locus by inspection of
75, p. 170).

the equation

Fourth

step.

Plot all of the axes used and the

locus.

In the second step the equations for rotating the axes are found from equations (2), (3), (4), and (II), p. 138. But if the

The 2-y-term is lacking, it is not necessary to rotate the axes. equations for translating the axes are found by the Rule on
p. 141.

Ex.

1.

Construct and discuss the locus of

4y2 + 12x-6y =
Solution.

0.

First step.

Here A

42

-4-1-4 =

0.

Second

step.

Hence we

rotate the axes through an angle

such that,

by

(2),

tan2

_fiU\

^T^H-U-<:
= -!,
and cos0
1 = --

Then by
and by
(4),

(3),

cos 20

sin0

V5

V5
become

The equations

for rotating the axes [(II), p. 138]

Substituting in the given equation,*

we

obtain

Z'2-Ay'^O.
V5
It is

not necessary to translate the axes. Third step. This equation may be written

Hence the locus

the F'-axis.

is

a parabola for which

q
-,

and whose focus

is

on

Vs
The work
of

*When A=0
substitution
is

simplified

the terms of the second degree form a perfect square. if the given equation is first written in the form

It

can be shown that when A =

the locus

is

always of the parabolic type.

CONIC SECTIONS
Fourth step. and directrix.
In the
is

175

The

figure

shows both

sets of axes,* the parabola, its focus

new
V

coordinates the focus

the point (0,

2V5 y

_) and the direc(Theorem

trix is the line y'

=
2V5

IV,

p. 155).

The

old coordinates of
substi-

the focus
tuting

may be found by the new coordinates

for

x/

y' in (1), and the equation of the directrix in the old coordinates

and

A^s
'

may be found by solving (1) for y' and substituting in the equation given above.
Ex.
2.

Construct the locus of

5 x2

6 xy

+
62

y2

22 x

6y

21

= 0.
found that the equa-

Solution.

First step.

A-

-4-5- 5^0.
first.

Second

step.

Hence we

translate the axes

It is

tions for translating the axes are

and that the transformed equation

is

From

(2) it is

seen that the axes must be rotated through

set

Hence we
"

yi\
and the
final

equation

is

Third
tion

step.

The

simplified equa-

may

be written

Hence the locus is an ellipse whose major axis is 8, whose minor axis and whose foci are on the Y"-axis. Fourth step. The figure shows the three sets of axes and the ellipse.
* The inclination of
this is

is 4,

OX'

is 0,

and hence
'

its slope,

tan 9,

may be may

obtained from

(4).

In

example tan0= cosfl = cos0

-=-.

7^

V5

V5 >

= 2, and

the Jf'-axis

be constructed by the

method given

in the footnote, p. 28.

176

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
PROBLEMS

1.

Simplify the following equations and construct their

loci,

foci,

and

directrices.
(a)

(b)
(c)

3z2 - 4zy + 8z - 1 = 0. 4z2 + 4zy + y 2 + 8z-16y

41 z2

Ana. z"2

= 0.
0.

24 zy

34 y 2

25

4ns. Ans.

- 4y" 2 1 = 0. j- 8 V5y' = 0. x /2 + 2 y"2 + 1 = 0.

5z'2
2

(d)

(e)
(f)

y z2

(g)

(h)

-4na. + 6z-6y + 21 = 0. -6zy + 9y 2 + 4z- 12y + 4 = 0. Ana. Ans. 12 zy - 5y 2 + 48 y - 36 = 0. 4z 2 -I2xy + 9y 2 + 2x- 3y-12 = 0.
2

y'

-f

6z'

0.

y"2 = 0. 4 z"2 - 9 y"

52 y //2
0.

= =

36.

^4ns.
(i)

49

0.

14z2

-4zy +
+ 8zy +
24zy
50 xy

ll?/

-88z +

34 y

+ +

149

-4ns.
(j)

2 z //2

3 y //2

= 0.
1.

12z 2

18?/

48z

16y

43
61

0.

Ans. 4z 2
(k)

+ 2y 2 =

9z
7

+ +
3

+ 16y -36z-48y +
2

0.

(1)

z2

y2

50.

2 (m) z

xy

3 y2

(n)

16z2
95 z2
5 z2

24 xy
56 xy

+ 6 z = 0. + 9y2 - 60z - 80y +

Ana. z' /2 + l = 0. Ana. 16 z /2 - 9 y /2 = 25. ulns. 21 z //2 - 49 y" 2 = 72. 400 = 0. Ana. 2/" 2 -4z" = 0.
194

(o)

- 10z/2 - 56z + 20y +

7
2
?/

0.

(p)

- 5 xy -

- 165 z +

1320

= 0.

Ana. 6z" 2 -y //2 + 12=:0. -4ns. 15 z //2 - 11 y"2 - 330

0.

77.

Systems

of conies.

The purpose

of this

section

is

to

illustrate

by examples and problems the relations between conies and degenerate conies and between conies of different
system of conies of the same type shows how the degenerate conies appear as limiting forms, while a system of conies of different types shows that the parabolic type is intermediate between
the elliptic and hyperbolic types.
Ex.
1.

types.

Discuss the system of conies represented by z2

4 y2

k.

Since the coefficients of z 2 and y 2 have the same sign, the locus belongs to the elliptic type (Corollary, p. 172). When k is positive the locus the locus is the origin, is an ellipse ; when k = a degenerate ellipse ; and
Solution.

when k

is

negative there

is

no

locus.

CONIC SECTIONS

177

In the figure the locus is plotted for k = 100, 64, 36, 16, 4, 1, 0. It is seen that as k approaches zero the ellipses become smaller and finally degenerate As soon as k becomes negative there is no locus. Hence the into a point.

point

is

a limiting case between the cases

is

when

the locus

is

an

ellipse

and

when
Ex.

there
2.

no

locus.

J
16 y 2

Discuss the system of conies represented by 4 x2

Since the coefficients of

= k.

Solution.

x2

and y have opposite

signs, the locus

3P

belongs to the hyperbolic type. The hyperbolas will all have the same 2 y = 0. The given equation may asymptotes (p. 165), namely, the lines x be written

16

The

locus

is

an hyperbola whose

foci are

on the X-axis when k

is

positive

and

178
on the F-axis when k
the locus
is

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
=

is negative. For k the given equation shows that the pair of asymptotes. In the figure the locus is plotted for k = 256, 144, 64, 16, 0, - 64, - 256. It is seen that as k approaches zero, whether it is positive or negative, the

hyperbolas become more pointed and lie closer to the asymptotes and finally degenerate into the asymptotes. Hence a pair of intersecting lines is a limiting case between the cases when the hyperbolas have their foci on the X-axis

and on the
Ex.
3.

F-axis.

Discuss the system of conies represented by y 2

2 kx

+ 16.

Solution.

As only one term

of the second degree

is

present, the locus

belongs to the parabolic type (Corollary, p. 172).

simplified (Rule, p. 141)

The given equation may be

to the

by translating the axes

new

origin

We

thus obtain
g
is
(

The locus

is

therefore a parabola

whose vertex

0)

and

for

which

p=
k
is

k.

It will

negative.

be turned to the right when k is positive, and to the left when But if k = 0, the locus is the degenerate parabola y = 4.

In the figure the locus is plotted for k 2, 1, 4, f 0. It is seen that as k approaches zero, whether it is positive or negative, the vertex recedes 4 and finally from the origin and the parabola lies closer to the lines y =
,

degenerates into these

lines.

The degenerate parabola

consisting of two

parallel lines appears as a limiting case between the cases olas are turned to the right and to the left.

when

the parab-

CONIC SECTIONS
PROBLEMS
1.

179

(a)

~+|if

Plot the following systems of conies.

*.

(b) y*

2kx.

(c)

*.

(d)

x2

= 2ky - 6.
is

x2
2.

Plot the system

--

w2
-

(-

for positive values of

k.

What

the

16? Show how the or decreases and approaches 16.

locus

foci

and

directrices

behave as k increases

3.

Plot the following systems of conies and

show

that

all

of the conies

of each system have the

same

foci.

4.

Plot and discuss the system

fcx 2

2 y2
f

- 8x =

0.

the Show that all of the conies of the Ovdi-s -systems pass through of intersection of the conies obtained by setting the parentheses equal points to zero. Plot the systems and discuss the loci for the values of k indicated.
5.

(a)

(y
(x

2 2

(b)
(c)

(x

-4x) + A;(y 2 + 4x) = 0, k = + 1, -1. + y 2 - 16) + fc(x2 - ?/ 2 - 4) = 0, k = + 1, - 1, + y 2 - 16) + fc(x2 - y2 - 16) = 0, k = + 1, - 1.

4.

6. Find the equation of the locus of a point from the points (c, 0) and ( c, 0) is 2 a.
7.

P if the

sum

of its distances

Find the equation of the locus of a point

(c,

P if

the difference of

its

distances from the points

8.

0)

and

c,

0) is 2 a.

Show

five conditions,

that a conic or degenerate conic may be found which satisfies and formulate a rule by which to find its equation. Find

the equation of the conies

(a)

Passing through
Passing through
circle

(0, 0), (1, 2), (1,

- 2),

(4, 4), (4,

(b)

(0, 0), (0, 1), (2, 4), (0, 4),

(-

1,

4).
2).

The

whose radius
is

is

a and whose center

circle.

is

the center of

a central conic

called the auxiliary

9. The ordinates of points on an ellipse and the auxiliary have the same abscissas are in the ratio of 6 a.
:

circle

which

is either an equilateral that the locus of xy + Dx -f Ey + F = whose asymptotes are parallel to the coordinate axes or a pair of hyperbola

10.

Show

perpendicular

lines.