1) Measurement and Scaling

2) Primary Scales of Measurement

i. ii. Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale

iii. Interval Scale iv. Ratio Scale 3) A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

4) Comparative Scaling Techniques

i. Paired Comparison
ii. Rank Order Scaling iii. Constant Sum Scaling

Measurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules. One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured. The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. Rules must not change over objects or time.

Measurement and Scaling

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.

Primary Scales of Measurement

i. Nominal Scale
ii. Ordinal Scale iii. Interval Scale iv. Ratio Scale

Four Basic Scales of Measurement

Nominal Scales

Ordinal Scales

Interval Scales

Ratio Scales

NOMINAL SCALE
NOMINAL SCALES ARE DEFINED AS THOSE THAT USE ONLY LABEL; THAT IS, THEY POSSESS ONLY THE CHARACTERISTIC OF DESCRIPTION THE RESPONSE DOES NOT INCLUDE ANY LEVEL OF INTENSITY

Nominal Scales
Nominal scales focus on only requiring a respondent to provide some type of descriptor as the response
Example.

Please indicate your current martial status.

__Married __ Single

EXAMPLES
DESIGNATIONS AS TO RACE, RELIGION, GENDER BRAND LAST PURCHASED ANSWERS THAT INVOLVE YES-NO, AGREE-DISAGREE

NOMINAL- SCALED QUESTIONS

CHECK ALL THE BRANDS YOU WOULD CONSIDER PURCHASING
I.
II. III. IV. SONY VIDEOCON SAMSUNG LG

DO YOU LIKE OR DISLIKE CHOCOLATE ICE CREAM?

I. II. LIKE DISLIKE

ORDINAL SCALE
AN ORDINAL SCALE IS OBTAINED BY RANKING OBJECTS OR ARRANGING THEM IN ORDER WITH REGARD TO SOME COMMON VARIABLE

Ordinal Scales
Ordinal scales allow the respondent to express relative magnitude between the raw responses to a question
Example. Which one statement best describes your opinion of an Intel PC processor? __ Higher than AMDs PC processor __ About the same as AMDs PC processor __ Lower than AMDs PC processor

THE QUESTION IS SIMPLY WHETHER EACH OBJECT HAS MORE OR LESS THAN SOME OTHER OBJECT

ORDINAL- SCALED QUESTIONS

PLEASE RANK EACH BRAND IN TERMS OF YOUR PREFERENCE PLEASE PLACE 1 BY YOUR FIRST CHOICE, A 2 BY YOUR SECOND CHOICE, AND SO ON
I. II. III. IV. V. VI. SONY VIDEOCON SAMSUNG LG BPL PHILLIPS

THIS SCALE DOES NOT ALLOW A RESEARCHER TO

DETERMINE THE ABSOLUTE DIFFERENCE IN ANY OF THE ORDINAL RELATIONSHIPS

INTERVAL SCALE
INTERVAL SCALES ARE THOSE IN WHICH THE DISTANCE BETWEEN EACH DESCRIPTOR IS KNOWN
IT DEMONSTRATES ABSOLUTE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EACH SCALE POINT

Interval Scales
Interval scales demonstrate the absolute differences between each scale point
Example. How likely are you to recommend the Santa Fe Grill to a friend? Definitely will not 1 2 3 4 Definitely will 5 6 7

INDICATE YOUR DEGREE OF AGREEMENT WITH FOLLOWING STATEMENTS BY CIRCLING THE APPROPRIATE NUMBER

STATEMENT

STRONGLY AGREE I ALWAYS LOOK FOR BARGAINS 1 I ENJOY BEING OUT DOORS 1 I LOVE TO COOK 1

2 2 2

3 3 3

4 4 4

STRONGLY DISAGREE 5 5 5

RATIO SCALE
RATIO SCALES ARE THE ONES IN WHICH TRUE ZERO ORIGIN EXISTS
SUCH AS -ACTUAL NUMBER OF PURCHASES IN A CERTAIN TIME PERIOD, -RUPEES SPENT, MILES TRAVELED ETC.

THIS CHARACTERISTIC ALLOW US TO CONSTRUCT RATIOS WHEN COMPARING THE RESULTS OF MEASUREMENT

APPROXIMATELY HOW MANY TIMES IN THE LAST MONTH HAVE YOU PURCHASED ANY THING OVER Rs.1000 IN VALUE AT NANZ STORE?
0 1 2 3 4 5 MORE ( SPECIFY_ )

HOW MUCH DO YOU THINK A TYPICAL PURCHASER OF A Rs. 5 LAKH TERM LIFE INSURANCE POLICY PAYS PER MONTH THAT POLICY? Rs.__________

Facts About the Four Levels of Scales

Facts About the Four Levels of Scales (contd)

EXAMPLE OF FOUR BASIC TYPES OF QUESTION PHRASINGS:

INFORMATION REQUIREMENT: TO DETERMINE HOW OFTEN CUSTOMERS USE THEIR PRIMARY AUTOMOBILE SERVICE PROVIDERS FACILITIES / SERVICES

NOMINAL QUESTION PHRASING:

WHEN YOUR VEHICLE REQUIRES MAINTENANCE SERVICE OR YOU HAVE PROBLEMS DO YOU USUALLY TAKE THE VEHICLE TO YOUR PRIMARY AUTOMOBILE SERVICE PROVIDER? THE LOGICAL RESPONSE TO THIS QUESTION WOULD BE A YES OR NO

ORDINAL QUESTION PHRASING:

WHEN YOUR VEHICLE REQUIRES MAINTENANCE SERVICE OR YOU HAVE PROBLEMS, HOW OFTEN DO YOU TAKE IT TO YOUR PRIMARY AUTOMOBILE SERVICE PROVIDER? (CHECK ONLY ONE RESPONSE)

THE LOGICAL RESPONSES MIGHT BE: __NEVER __SELDOM __OCCASIONALLY __USUALLY __EVERY TIME

INTERVAL QUESTION PHRASING:

SINCE PURCHASING YOUR VEHICLE, APPROXIMATELY HOW OFTEN HAVE YOU USED THE SERVICES AT YOUR PRIMARY AUTOMOBILE SERVICE PROVIDER? (CHECK THE ONE APPROPRIATE RESPONSE)

LESS THAN 3 TIMES 4 TO 8 TIMES 9 TO 12 TIMES 13 TO 16 TIMES OVER 16 TIMES

RATIO QUESTION PHRASING:

IN THE PAST 12 MONTHS HOW MANY TIMES DID YOU TAKE YOUR VEHICLE FOR SERVICE OR REPAIRS TO YOUR PRIMARY AUTOMOBILE SERVICE PROVIDER?
___NO. OF TIMES

ASSESSING A RESPONDENTS LIKING OF SOFTDRINKS WITH NOMINAL ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO SCALES

NOMINAL SCALE
WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING SOFT DRINKS ON THE FOLLOWING LIST DO YOU LIKE? CHECK ALL THAT APPLY

COKE THUMS UP MOUNTAIN DEW PEPSI SEVEN UP SPRTIE

ORDINAL SCALE PLEASE RANK THE SOFT DRINKS ON THE FOLLOWING LIST ACCORDING TO YOUR DEGREE OF LIKING FOR EACH, ASSIGNINIG MOST PREFERRED DRINK RANK=1 AND YOUR LEAST PREFERRED DRINK RANK=6 COKE THUMS UP MOUNTAIN DEW PEPSI SEVEN UP SPRTIE

INTERVAL SCALE PLEASE INDICATE YOUR DEGREE OF LIKING OF EACH OF THE SOFTDRINKS ON THE FOLLOWING LIST BY CHECKING THE APPROPRIATE POSITION ON THE SCALE
DISLIKE A LOT DISLIKE LIKE LIKE A LOT

COKE THUMS UP MOUNTAIN DEW PEPSI SEVEN UP SPRTIE

RATIO SCALE PLEASE DIVIDE 100 POINTS AMONG EACH OF THE FOLLOWING SOFT DRINKS ACCORDING TO YOUR DEGREE OF LIKING FOR EACH COKE THUMS UP MOUNTAIN DEW PEPSI SEVEN UP SPRTIE

Measurement Process
1. Define concepts to be measured 2. Define attributes of the concepts 3. Select scale of measurement (data type) 4. Generate Items/Questions
Wording Response format

5. Layout and design questionnaire 6. Pretest and refine

Generate Items
Items are basically questions Need to ensure that enough questions are asked to generate information necessary to address research problems.

Common Response Formats

Noncomparative Scales Comparative Scales

A Classification of Scaling Figure 8.2 Techniques

Scaling Techniques Noncomparative Scales

Comparative Scales

Paired Comparison

Rank Order

Constant Sum

Q-Sort and Other Procedures

Continuous Itemized Rating Scales Rating Scales

Likert

Semantic Differential

Stapel

A Comparison of Scaling Techniques

Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected. Same known reference points for all respondents. Easily understood and can be applied. Involve fewer theoretical assumptions. Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.

Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

Ordinal nature of the data Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.

Comparative Scaling Techniques Paired Comparison Scaling

A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature. Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling technique. With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired comparison data to a rank order.

Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired Comparisons

Figure 8.3

Instructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of

shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use. Head & Pert Recording Form: Jhirmack Finesse Vidal
Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Sassoon Head & Shoulders Pert Number of Times Preferredb
aA

0 1a 1 0 1 3 1 0 1 2

Sassoon Shoulders 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 1

0 0 1 0 1

1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.

Paired Comparison Selling

The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumers purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke. A paired comparison taste test

Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling

Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling

Figure 8.4

Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Figure 8.4 cont. Rank Order Scaling
Form
Brand 1. Crest 2. Colgate Rank Order _________ _________

3. Aim
4. Gleem 5. Macleans 6. Ultra Brite

_________
_________ _________ _________

7. Close Up
8. Pepsodent 9. Plus White 10. Stripe

_________
_________ _________ _________

Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling

Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Figure 8.5 Using a Constant Sum Scale
Instructions

On the next slide, there are eight attributes of bathing soaps. Please allocate 100 points among the attributes so that your allocation reflects the relative importance you attach to each attribute. The more points an attribute receives, the more important the attribute is. If an attribute is not at all important, assign it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it should receive twice as many points.

Importance of Bathing Soap Attributes Using Figure 8.5 cont. a Constant Sum Scale
Form
Attribute 1. Mildness 2. Lather 3. Shrinkage 4. Price 5. Fragrance 6. Packaging 7. Moisturizing 8. Cleaning Power Sum

Average Responses of Three Segments

Segment I
8 2 3 53 9 7 5 13 100

Segment II
2 4 9 17 0 5 3 60 100

Segment III
4 17 7 9 19 9 20 15 100

Figure 10.1 Relationship of Noncomparative Scaling to the Previous Chapters and the Marketing Research Process
Focus of This Chapter Relationship to Previous Chapters Relationship to Marketing Research Process
Problem Definition Approach to Problem

Continuous Rating Scales

Itemized Rating Scales

Research Design Components (Chapter 3)

Basic Types of Scales (Chapter 9)

Research Design Field Work

Data Preparation and Analysis

Report Preparation and Presentation

Non-comparative Scaling Techniques

Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason noncomparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales. Noncomparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales.

Figure 10.3 A Classification of Noncomparative Rating Scales

Noncomparative Rating Scales

Continuous Rating Scales

Itemized Rating Scales

Semantic Differential

Stapel

Likert

Continuous Rating Scale

Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Sears as a department store? Version 1 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best Version 2 Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Version 3 Neither good Very good nor bad Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Very bad

100

100

Itemized Rating Scales

The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position; and the respondents are required to select the specified category that best describes the object being rated. The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic differential, and Stapel scales.

Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
Strongly disagree Disagree Neither Agree agree nor disagree 3 3 3X 4 4 4 Strongly agree

1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 2. Sears has poor in-store service. 3. I like to shop at Sears.

1 1 1

2X 2X 2

5 5 5

The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calculated.

When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.

Semantic Differential Scale

The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. SEARS IS: Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and sometimes at the right. This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels. Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.

Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS
+5 +4 +3 +2 +1 HIGH QUALITY -1 -2 -3 -4X -5 +5 +4 +3 +2X +1 POOR SERVICE -1 -2 -3 -4 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the same way as semantic differential data.

Stapel Scales

TABLE 10.1 Basic Noncomparative Scales

Scale Continuous Rating Scale Itemized Rating Scales Likert Scale Degree of agreement on a Measurement of 1 (strongly disagree) to attitudes 5 (strongly agree) scale Seven-point scale with bipolar labels Unipolar ten-point scale, -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero) Brand, product, and company images Measurement of attitudes and images Easy to construct, administer, and understand Versatile More time consuming Difficult to construct; appropriate bipolar adjectives Confusing and difficult to apply Basic Characteristics Place a mark on a continuous line Examples Reaction to TV commercials Advantages Easy to construct Disadvantages Scoring can be cumbersome unless computerized

Semantic Differential Stapel Scale

Easy to construct; Administered over telephone

TABLE 10.2 Summary of Itemized Rating Scale Decisions 1. Number of categories While there is no single, optimal number, traditional guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine categories. 2. Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective data. 3. Odd or even number of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible for at least some of the respondents, an odd number of categories should be used.

TABLE 10.2 (Cont.) Summary of Itemized Rating Scale Decisions

4. Forced versus nonforced

In situations where the respondents are expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of data may be improved by a nonforced scale.

5. Verbal description

An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale categories. The category descriptions should be located as close to the response categories as possible.

6. Physical form

A number of options should be tried and the best one selected.

Figure 10.4 Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

Balanced Scale
Surfing the Internet is

Unbalanced Scale
Surfing the Internet is

____ Extremely Good

____ Very Good ____ Good

____ Extremely Good

____ Very Good ____ Good

____ Bad
____ Very Bad ____ Extremely Bad

____ Somewhat Good

____ Bad ____ Very Bad

Figure 10.5 Rating Scale Configurations

A variety of scale configurations may be employed to measure the comfort of Nike shoes. Some examples include:

Nike shoes are: 1) Place an X on one of the blank spaces Very Uncomfortable 2)Circle the number
Very 1 Uncomfortable

Very Comfortable

Very Comfortable

3)Place an X on one of the blank spaces Very Uncomfortable Neither Uncomfortable nor Comfortable Comfortable

Figure 10.5 Rating Scale Configurations (continued)

4)
Uncomfortable Somewhat Somewhat Comfortable Very Very Neither Uncomfortable Comfortable Comfortable Uncomfortable Comfortable nor Uncomfortable

5) -3
Very Uncomfortable

-2

-1

0
Neither Comfortable nor Uncomfortable

3
Very Comfortable

Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations

Thermometer Scale Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonalds hamburgers
by coloring in the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best indicates how strong your preference is.

Form:

Like very much Dislike very much

100 75 50 25 0

Smiling Face Scale Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the
Barbie Doll. If you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much, you would point to Face 5.

Form:

TABLE 10.3 Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing Construct Attitude Scale Descriptors Very Bad, Bad , Neither Bad nor Good, Good, Very Good

Importance

Not at All Important, Not Important, Neutral , Important, Very Important

Satisfaction

Very Dissatisfied, Dissatisfied, Neither Dissatisfied nor satisfied, Satisfied, Very Satisfied

Purchase Frequency

Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, Very Often