Chapter 3

Atoms and Moles

Atomic Models

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Atomic Theory
Mikhail Lomonosov (1711-1795) and Antoine Lavosier (17431794): developed law of conservation of mass states that mass of reactants equals mass of products

Law of Conservation of Mass

Law of Conservation of Mass

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Atomic Theory
Joseph Proust (1754-1826): proposed law of definite proportions states that two samples of a given compound are made of the same elements in exactly the same proportions by mass

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Atomic Theory
Claude-Louise Berthollet (17481822): proposed law of multiple proportions states that when two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the mass of one element that combines with a mass of the other is in the ratio of small whole #s

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Daltons Atomic Theory
John Dalton (1766-1844): developed a new atomic theory 1. all matter is made of atoms, which cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed 2. atoms of a given element are identical in their chemical and physical properties

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Daltons Atomic Theory
3. atoms of different elements differ in their physical and chemical properties 4. atoms of different elements combine in simple, wholenumber ratios to form compounds

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Daltons Atomic Theory
5. in chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged but not created, destroyed, or changed

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Further Progress
Jons Berzelius (1779-1848) studied proportions in which elements combine with one another (over 2000) experimental underpinning of Daltons theory made table of atomic weights named halogens

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Further Progress
Jons Berzelius (1779-1848) invented alphabetical nomenclature of elements coined terms organic chemistry, catalysis, and protein

3.1 Matter Made of Atoms

Further Progress
valency and bonding described in 1850s Stanislao Cannizzaro (remember?): distinction between atoms and molecules periodic table developed in 1860s

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
Heinrich Geissler (1814-1879): invented the vacuum tube (late 1850s) vacuum tube: hollow, glass tube in which the air has been removed; electrodes at either end produces a glow when current flows between electrodes

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
Eugen Goldstein (1850-1930) named glowing rays cathode rays (1876) showed that they were deflected by magnetic fields; could cast shadows discovered rays coming from anode; called them canal rays (1886)

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
William Crookes (1832-1919) showed that cathode rays were made of particles, not light (1879) convincing to the British, but not mainlanders

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
J. J. Thomson (1856-1940): showed that rays were slower than light (1894) Jean Perrin (1870-1942): showed that metal plates hit by rays became negatively charged (1895)

Three Random Walks

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
J. J. Thomson (again) measured mass/charge; found that particles were small or charge was large (1897) measured electric charge itself; found electrons to be 1/2000 mass of a H atom (1899) new atomic model

Deflections of Cathode Rays

Thomsons Atomic Model

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) discovered and radiation (1890s) discovered radiation (1900) discovered that particles are a He nucleus (1908)

, , Radiation

 Radiation Image

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) gold foil experiment (1909) particles fired at gold foil most went through, some deflected conclusion: most of the mass and charge of an atom is in the nucleus; electrons in cloud

Gold

Gold Foil Experiment

Expectations versus Reality

Explanation

Explanation

Rutherfords Paper

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
Francis Aston (1877-1945): showed that atoms come in different varieties (different weights) (1912) called isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons E.R. discovered proton (1918)

Evidence for Isotopes

3.2 Structure of Atoms

Subatomic Particles
James Chadwick (1891-1974): discovered the neutron (sort of) (1932)

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electrons and Light
Light as a moving wave c = f c speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s wavelength (m) distance between peak or troughs of a wave f frequency (1/s 1 hertz) # of waves per second

Waves

Light Waves

Light

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electrons and Light
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) atoms emit or absorb EM radiation in discrete (quantized) units (1905) light has properties of waves and particles (1905)

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electrons and Light
Niels Bohr (1885-1962) worked with Rutherford new atomic model: electrons orbit nucleus at particular energy levels (1912) electrons dont give off energy (no spiraling allowed) Why dont electrons go straight to the nucleus???

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electrons and Light
Bohrs model electron in state of lowest possible energy is in ground state if electron gains energy, it moves to an excited state(!) if electron falls back to ground state, it releases energy as light

Excited State

Absorbance and Emission

Absorbance and Emission

Quantization

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electrons and Light
Bohrs model, continued Bohr predicted the wavelengths of light for hydrogenhe was right! all light wavelengths together are called line-emission spectrum each element has its own

Hydrogen Emission

H Absorbance and Emission

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electrons and Light
Louis de Broglie (1892-1987) particles can be described as waves (1925) therefore, electrons can only have certain frequencies (energy levels) and cant fall toward nucleus quantum atomic model

3.3 Electron Configuration

Quantum numbers
n principal (main energy levels) l angular momentum (shape or type of sublevel) l = 0 s orbital l = 1 p orbital l = 2 d orbital l = 3 f orbital

Principal Quantum Number

Energy Level Transitions

3.3 Electron Configuration

Quantum numbers
ml magnetic (subset of l quantum number) ms spin (orientation of magnetic field) +1/2 or -1/2

Quantum Numbers

Orbital Shapes

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electron Configurations
Pauli exclusion principle: each orbital can hold no more than two electrons no two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers Aufbau principle: electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first 1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d

Overlapping Orbital Energies

3.3 Electron Configuration

Electron Configurations
Hunds rule: orbitals of the same n and l number are occupied by one electron before pairing occurs

Hunds Rule