SOLID STATE PHYSICS
Introduction
Closer collection of atom solid
Crystalline & non- crystalline
Bonds old te atoms to!eter in solids
Ty"es of #onds
Ionic #ondin!
Co$alent #ondin!
%etallic #ondin!
Hydro!en #ondin!
&an der 'aals #ondin!
Ionic bonding
Attracti$e force e(istin! #et'een a "ositi$e ion and ne!ati$e ion 'en tey are
#ro)!t to close "ro(imity
E(am"les*
+aCl, -Cl, -Br, %!O, etc
Properties
Crystalline in nat)re
Hard and #rittle
Hi! meltin! and #oilin! "oints
.ood ins)lators /stron! #ond0
sol)#le in "olar sol$ents1
Covalent bonding
Bondin! is #y &alence electron sarin!
properties:
Directional
E(i#it &aryin! "ysical "ro"erties
#eca)se of different #ond stren!t
E!* diamond , tin
Crystalline, ard and #rittle1
Com"ariti$ely lo' meltin! and #oilin!
"oints
.ood ins)lators at lo' tem"erat)res
2en do"ed 'it certain im")rities
semi cond)ctors
Metallic bonding
Array of "ositi$e metal ions em#edded
in a clo)d of free electrons
Properties:
3elati$ely 'ea4
%allea#le and d)ctile
+on directional
Ha$e i! n)m#er of free electrons
Possess i! electrical and termal
cond)cti$ity
O"a5)e to li!t
E(am"les*
Sodi)m, co""er, !old, sil$er,
al)mini)m1
Hydrogen bonding
2it ydro!en atom as te "ositi$e end of te di"ole
if #onds arise as a res)lt of electrostatic attraction
#et'een atoms1
Properties:
Bonds are directional
Stron! com"ared to di"ole di"ole interactions
Ha$e lo' meltin! "oints
.ood ins)lators as tey don6t a$e $alence electrons1
Sol)#le in #ot "olar and non "olar sol$ents1
Tey are trans"arent to li!t
Van der waals bonding
2ea4 and tem"orary di"ole #onds #et'een
ydro!en
Properties:
Bonds are non directional
2ea4er tan ydro!en #ondin!
Ha$e lo' meltin! "oints
.ood ins)lators
Sol)#le in #ot "olar and non "olar sol$ents
Trans"arent to li!t
E(am"les*
Solid neon, solid ar!on
Crystal growth
+)cleation
7e' atoms 8oin to!eter and form em#ryo/ "ro#a#ility to !ro'
f)rter is less0
7)rter !ro't critical n)cle)s
%olec)les !et oriented to a fi(ed lattice
Crystal Growth Techniques
91 .ro't from sol)tion
Idea*
omo!eneo)s soln -: solid (tals ; sol$ent
<1 .ro't from !as /$a"or0 "ase
Idea*
E$a"orate "o'der, de"osit $a"or onto seeds
=1 .ro't from li5)id /melt0 "ase
Idea*
%elt "oly(tals of desired materials, slo'ly cool
Growth from solution
Hydrotermal !ro't
Growth from melt
C>ocrals4i metod
Brid!man-Stoc4#ar!er metod
Growth from vapour
Cemical $a"o)r de"osition
Applications
ie!oelectric quart! crystal "oscillator# in
in$%et printing
Applications& sensor
1. Roll Empty Detection
2. Web Tensioning
3. Splice Detection
4. Web Tension Control
5. Web Break onitoring
!. Cylin"er an" #art
#osition
$. %nk &e'el Detection
application
Lasers
Laser "rinter
Ct" "latema4in!
&iolet /+eodymi)m-do"ed crystals0
Termal/I3 crystals li4e ?n.eP< ,
A!.aSe<, A!.aS<, .aSe 0
@$ ct" "lates /Ce*LiSA7 crystals0
.ra$)re cylinder "re"aration
Crystallograp(y
Crystallography is te science of te arran!ement of atoms in
solids1
Crystalline solids- atoms are arran!ed in a "eriodic manner
sin!le or "olycrystalline1
+on crystalline solids are called amor"o)s and a$e no
directional "ro"erties
Termal, electrical, mecanical and o"tical "ro"erties of crystals
de"end on teir str)ct)ral "ro"erties1
A- ray diffraction and ne)tron diffraction metods are )sed to
st)dy te crystal str)ct)re1
Space &attice
Lattice is te re!)lar !eometrical arran!ement of "oints in crystal s"ace1
Te atoms arran!e temsel$es in distinct "attern in s"ace is called a
Space Lattice1
Atoms in crystalline materials are arran!ed in a re!)lar = Dimensional
re"eatin! "attern 4no'n as Lattice Structure1
Tey are di$ided #y net'or4 of lines in to e5)al $ol)mes, te "oints of
intersection are 4no'n as Lattice Points1
)nit Cell
It is te smallest "ortion of te
lattice 'ic re"eated in all
directions1
=D $is)ali>ation of 9B S"ace
Lattices are 4no'n as Bravais
Space Lattice1
If a )nit cell contains lattice
"oints only at it6s corners, ten it
is called Primitive Unit Cell (or)
Simple Unit Cell.
Tree ed!e len!t (,y, & > and
tree intera(ial an!les C, D, & E
are termed as Lattice
Parameters1
Crystal System
It is a sceme #y 'ic crystal str)ct)res are classified accordin! to )nit
cell !eometry1
Types of Crystal Systems:
C)#ic
Tetra!onal
He(a!onal
Ortorom#ic
3om#oedral
%onoclinic
Triclinic
Simple Crystal Str*ct*re
+earest nei!#o)r distance/<r0
Atomic radi)s/r0
Coordination n)m#er/n0
Atomic "ac4in! factor/$F&0
Poloni)m is te only element tat e(i#it tis str)ct)re
'imple cubic structure
+earest nei!#o)r distance G <r G a
2ere aG lattice constant
Atomic radi)s rG aF<
Coordination n)m#erGH
Pac4in! factorG $ol)me of all atoms in an )nit cell
$ol)me of te )nit cell
Bo"y Centere" C*bic Str*ct*re +BCC,
@nit cell contains < atoms
Lattice Constant aG Br F I=,
'ere r is atomic radi)s Atomic "ac4in!
factor AP7 G J1HK
%etals are &anadi)m, %oly#den)m,
Titani)m, T)n!sten
-ace Centere" C*bic +-CC,
@nit cell contains B atoms
Lattice Constant aG Br F I<,
'ere r is atomic radi)s
Atomic "ac4in! factor AP7 G
J1L<
%etals are Co""er, Al)min)m,
Pos"oro)s, +ic4el, Co#alt etc
.e/agonal Close" #acke" Str*ct*re
+.C#,
@nit cell contains = atoms
Atomic "ac4in! factor AP7 G J1LB
%etals are ?inc, Cadmi)m, Berylli)m,
%a!nesi)m etc
iller %n"ices
%iller Indices is a system of notation tat denotes te
orientation of te faces of a crystal and te "lanes and
directions of atoms 'itin tat crystal1
iller !n"ices for Planes:
Intercepts ( a ) a ) a Intercepts ( a ) a ) * Intercepts ( + a ) a ) *
olymorphism and allotrophy
Te a#ility of a material to
a$e more tan one str)ct)re
in its solid state
If te can!e in str)ct)re is
re$ersi#le ten te
"olymor"ic can!e is
allotro"y
E(am"le* co#alt, car#on
Crystal Imperfections
Point im"erfection
Line im"erfection
S)rface im"erfection
&ol)me im"erfection
oint imperfection
&acancy atoms
Interstitial atoms
S)#stit)tional atoms
Vacancy
self-
interstiti
al
,-
oint .efects in an ionic crystal
/ren$el and 'chott$y
Schottky
Defect
Frenkel
Defect
0ine imperfection
Ed!e dislocation
Scre' dislocation
'crew dislocation
surface imperfections
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volume imperfections
Stac4in! fa)lts
1uestions
2ic amon! te follo'in! as i!er #ond stren!t
Ionic #ondin!
Co$alent #ondin!
%etallic #ondin!
Hydro!en #ondin!
#ns$er: !onic %on"ing
1uestions
2at is te miller indices of te !i$en crystal "lane
Ans'er* <9J
1uestions
E(am"le for sim"le c)#ic str)ct)re
Ans'er* "oloni)m
'at are te t'o Allotro"ic forms of car#on
Ans'er* !ra"ite and diamond
+ame te t'o ty"es of "oint im"erfections in an ionic crystal
Ans'er* fren4el and scott4y
