Course no: Phy 1201

Course Title: Physics II

 Contents

 Structure of Matter
 Electricity and Magnetism
 Modern Physics
Structure of Matter
 Structure of Matter
 States of Matter
 Classification of solids
 Ceramics and polymers
 Atomic arrangement in solids.
 Bonds in solids
 Packing in solids
 Inter atomic distances and forces of equilibrium
 X-ray diffraction and Bragg’s law
 Plasticity and elasticity
 Atomic Arrangement in Solids
 Crystalline and amorphous material
 Crystal structure
 Lattice and basis
 Unit cell
 Lattice parameter
 Seven crystal systems
 Packing fraction
 Miller index
 Coordination number
 Crystalline Material

Qurtz Gallium
Amorphous Material

Butter
Crystalline and Amorphous Material
Crystalline and Amorphous Material
 Crystalline and Amorphous Material
 Crystalline material: atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged regularly
and periodically (long range order).

 Amorphous material: atoms, molecules, or ions are not arranged regularly

and periodically (short range order).

 Crystalline materials are of two types:

 Single crystal: periodic and repeated arrangement of
atoms extends throughout the crystal.
 Polycrystal: collection of small crystals (grains or
crystallites).
 Lattice
 Regular and periodic arrangement of points in three dimension.
 Each lattice point has identical surroundings (Bravais lattice).
 Basis
 An atom, a group of atoms or a molecule associated with each points.
 Crystal structure = Lattice + Basis.
 Unit Cell
 Smallest block or volume which can generate the crystal by repeating
itself in 3D.
 Lattice parameter

 Primitives or Characteristic intercepts:

a, b, c
 Interfacial angles: 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾
 Lattice parameters (geometrical constants):
a, b, c and 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾
 Types of Unit cell
 Two types (Based on atomic positions) : (i) Primitive (P)
(ii) Non-primitive

Non primitive
Primitive
 Types of Unit cell
 Three types of non-primitive unit cell : (i) Body centred (I)
(ii) Face centred (F)
(iii) Base or End centred (A)

Base centred Body centred Face centred

 Seven Crystal Systems
 Cubic crystal:  Possible structures:
a=b=c
(i) Simple cubic (SC)
𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90°
(ii) Body centred cubic (BCC)
(iii) Face centred cubic (FCC)
 Examples: Po, Cr, Al
 Seven Crystal Systems

Po (SC) Cr (BCC) Al (FCC)

Seven Crystal Systems
 Seven Crystal Systems
 Tetragonal crystal: a=b≠c
𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90°

 Possible structures:
(i) Primitive (P)
(ii) Body centred (I)

 Examples: In, Sn

wulfenite
 Seven Crystal Systems
Tetragonal crystal
 Seven Crystal Systems
 Orthorhombic crystal:  Possible structures:
a≠b≠c (i) Primitive (P)
𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90°
(ii) Body centred (I)
 Examples: Br, Ga
(iii) Face centred (F)
(iv) End centred (A)
 Seven Crystal Systems

Topaz
 Seven Crystal Systems
 Hexagonal crystal: a=b≠c
𝛼 = 𝛽 = 90°, 𝛾 = 120°
 Possible structures: Primitive (P)
 Examples: Be, Cd

Beryl
 Seven Crystal Systems
 Trigonal crystal: a=b=c
𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 ≠ 90°
 Possible structures:
(i) Primitive (P)
 Examples: B, Hg

Dolomite
 Seven Crystal Systems
 Monoclinic crystal: a ≠ b ≠ c, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 90° ≠ 𝛾
 Possible structures:
(i) Primitive (P)
(ii) End centred (A)
 Examples: Pu, P

Orthoclase
 Seven Crystal Systems
 Triclinic crystal: Possible structure: Primitive (P)
a≠b≠c
𝛼≠𝛽≠ 𝛾
 Examples: 𝐾2 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7

Microcline, KAl𝑆𝑖3 𝑂8
 Seven Crystal Systems
Types of No. of
Crystal system Lattice parameters Bravais Bravais
Lattice Lattice

Cubic 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90° P, I, F 3
Orthorhombic 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90° P, I, F, C 4
Trigonal 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 ≠ 90° P 1
Triclinic 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼≠𝛽≠𝛾 P 1
Monoclinic 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 90° ≠ 𝛾 P, C 2
Tetragonal 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90° P, I 2
Hexagonal 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 90°, 𝛾 = 120° P 1
Cubic Structure
Types of Unit cell
 Packing Fraction
 Packing fraction is the ratio of actual volume occupied by the atoms to
the total available volume of the structure.
 It is denoted by P.

actual volume occupied by the atoms in the structure

 P=
total available volume of the structure

 Also known as atomic packing factor (APF), packing efficiency.

 P < 1 (always)
 How a road is smoother when the stones are close together ( metals with
a high P will have higher workability).
 Packing Fraction of SC Structure
Edge of the cube = 𝑎
Radius of each atom = 𝑟
Unit cell of simple cubic (SC) structure contains one atom.
Edges of atoms touch each other. Thus 𝑎 = 2𝑟
 Packing Fraction of SC Structure
volume of the cube = 𝑎3
4 3
volume of one atom = 𝜋𝑟
3

actual volume occupied by the atoms in the structure

P=
total available volume of the structure

4 3 4 𝑎 3
1 × 𝜋𝑟 𝜋 𝜋
P= 3 = 3 2 = = 0.52
𝑎 3 𝑎3 6
i.e. 52% [Example: Po]
 Packing Fraction of BCC Structure
Edge of the cube = 𝑎
Radius of each atom = 𝑟

𝐴𝐷 = 𝑟 + 2𝑟 + 𝑟 = 4𝑟 … … … (1)

In right angled triangle ABC,

𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐶𝐵2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑎2
∴ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎√2

In right angled triangle ADC,

𝐴𝐷2 = 𝐵𝐷2 + 𝐴𝐵2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 = 3𝑎2
∴ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑎√3……..(2)
 Packing Fraction of BCC Structure
Edge of the cube = 𝑎
Radius of each atom = 𝑟

𝐴𝐷 = 𝑟 + 2𝑟 + 𝑟 = 4𝑟 … … … (1)

In right angled triangle ABC,

𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐶𝐵2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑎2
∴ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎√2

In right angled triangle ADB,

𝐴𝐷2 = 𝐵𝐷2 + 𝐴𝐵2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 = 3𝑎2
∴ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑎√3……..(2)
 Packing Fraction of BCC structure

4𝑟 = 𝑎√3
𝑎√3
∴𝑟=
4

actual volume occupied by the atoms in the structure

P=
total available volume of the structure
3
4 3 4 𝑎 3
2 × 𝜋𝑟 2× 𝜋 𝜋√3
P= 3 = 3 4 = = 0.68
𝑎3 𝑎3 8
𝑖. 𝑒. , 68% [Example: Li]
 Packing Fraction of FCC structure
Edge of the cube = 𝑎 In right angled triangle ABC,
Radius of each atom = 𝑟 𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝐶 2 + 𝐶𝐵2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 = 2𝑎2
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑟 + 2𝑟 + 𝑟 … … … (1) ∴ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑎 2 … … … … … 2
𝑎
4𝑟 = 𝑎 2 ⇒ 𝑟 =
2√2
 Packing Fraction of FCC structure
actual volume occupied by the atoms in the structure
P=
total available volume of the structure
4 3
4 × 𝜋𝑟
P= 3
𝑎3
3
4 𝑎
4× 𝜋
3 2 2 𝜋
P= = = 0.74
𝑎3 3√2

𝑖. 𝑒. , 74% [Example: Cu]

 Miller Index

 Miller indices were introduced by W H Miller in 1839.

 Miller Indices are defined as a set of smallest integers that indicates the
orientation of a plane or set of parallel planes in a crystal.

 Miller indices form a notation system in crystallography for planes.

 How to Draw Plane

 To draw a plane (ℎ𝑘𝑙):

1 1 1
1. Find the reciprocal of ℎ𝑘𝑙 , i. e. , , , .
ℎ 𝑘 𝑙
2. For all non-zero indices, draw a point on the x-axis
1 1
at , a point on the y-axis at , a point on the z-axis
ℎ 𝑘
1
at .
𝑙
3. Connect the dots.
How to Draw Plane
How to Draw Plane
How to Draw Plane
 How to Draw Direction

 To draw a direction [ℎ𝑘𝑙]:

1. Choose a point for the origin of your vector.

2. Determine the vector end point.
3. Connect the origin and end point.
How to Draw Direction
How to Draw Direction
 Miller Index
 ((ℎ𝑘𝑙) denotes the position and orientation of a crystallographic plane.
 {ℎ𝑘𝑙} denotes the set of all planes that are equivalent to (ℎ𝑘𝑙).
 In the context of crystal directions (not planes): [ℎ𝑘𝑙], with square
instead of round brackets, denotes a direction.
 < ℎ𝑘𝑙 >denotes the set of all directions that are equivalent to [ℎ𝑘𝑙] by
symmetry.

Example:
100 ⇒ 100 , ത
100 ത , 001 , (001)
, 010 , 010 ത
< 100 >⇒ 100 , ത
100 ത , 001 , [100]
, 010 , 010
 Miller Index
Interplanar spacing for a set of parallel planes (ℎ𝑘𝑙):

1
d=
ℎ2 𝑘 2 𝑙 2
( 2 + 2 + 2)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

The angle 𝜃 between the crystallographic directions [ℎ1 𝑘1 𝑙1 ] and [ℎ2 𝑘2 𝑙2 ] is

given by:
ℎ1 ℎ2 + 𝑘1 𝑘2 + 𝑙1 𝑙2
cos 𝜃 =
ℎ12 + 𝑘12 + 𝑙12 ) ℎ22 + 𝑘22 + 𝑙22 )
 Coordination Number

SC coordination number BCC coordination number

 Coordination Number

 Number of nearest neighbours

which an atom has in the
structure.

 Coordination numbers:
o Simple cubic: 6
o Body centred cubic: 8
o Face centred cubic: 12

FCC coordination number

Interatomic Force and Force of Equilibrium
Interatomic Force and Force of Equilibrium
Interatomic Force and Force of Equilibrium
Energy at equilibrium
distance is known as
binding energy or
energy of cohesion.

Energy 𝑈0 is released
when two atoms are at
r = 𝑟𝑚 .

𝑟𝑚 is equilibrium
distance.
 Bonding in Solid
To know exact nature of bonding, knowledge of charge distribution of
valence electrons are required.
a) Transfer of valence electrons takes place (ionic crystal:
NaCl).
b) Sharing of electrons takes place (covalent crystal:
diamond).
c) Free nature of valence electrons (metallic crystal: Cu).
d) Electrons are associated with original molecule (molecular
crystal: van der Waals bond, hydrogen bond)
First three types: Primary bond
Last type: Secondary bond
Bonding in Solid

Ionic NaCl
Bonding in Solid
 Bonding in Solid

 Metal looks like “positive ions in a sea of electrons”.

 Good conductors of heat and electricity.
 Malleable and ductile, and most are strong.
 Their strength indicates that the atoms are difficult to separate.
 The electrical conductivity suggests that it is easy to move electrons in
any direction in these materials.
 The thermal conductivity also involves the motion of electrons.
 Bonding in Solid
 Even though the water molecule as a whole is electrically neutral, the
distribution of charge in the molecule is not symmetrical.
 This leads to a dipole moment.
 This leads to a net attraction between such polar molecules.
 Hydrogen bonding is an example of van der Waals bonding.
 Even nonpolar molecules experience some van der Waals bonding. Even
though the molecules don't have permanent dipole moments. The
fluctuations of molecular dipole moments lead to a net attraction between
molecules.
 X-ray Diffraction and Bragg Law
When x-rays are scattered from a crystal lattice, peaks of scattered
intensity are observed which correspond to the following conditions:
1) The angle of incidence = angle of scattering.
2) The pathlength difference is equal to an integer number of
wavelengths.
The condition for maximum intensity contained in Bragg's law above
allow us to calculate details about the crystal structure, or if the crystal
structure is known, to determine the wavelength of the x-rays incident
upon the crystal.
2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
X-ray Diffraction and Bragg Law
 Ceramics and Polymer

Metals:
 High electrical and thermal conductivity
 Ability to be deformed or cut into new shapes without breaking
 High mechanical strength
 More costly than non-metallic material
 Vulnerable to corrosion damage
 Tend to be shiny and malleable
 Metals have these characteristics because they have nonlocalized
electrons.
 Ceramics and Polymer
Ceramics:
 Ceramics include compounds as oxides, nitrides, and carbides
 Insulating (not electrical or thermally conductive)
 Resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments (corrosion
resistant)
 Have lower electrical and thermal conductivity, higher stiffness, good
resistance to corrosive environments, and lower fracture toughness than
metals
 With the exception of glasses, ceramics usually cannot be reshaped easily
 To shape a ceramic, a mixture of ceramic powders, water, and binder
materials is molded into the desired dimensions to form a temporary
shape. These temporary shapes called "green bodies" are then dried to
remove water and heated to allow the binder materials to oxidize, leaving
the ceramic powder particles to bond to each other during the high
temperature baking.
 Ceramics and Polymer
Bricks:
Bricks are ceramic materials made by
baking moulded clay.
Advantages of bricks:
 They are hard, so not easy to
scratch
 They are strong under compression,
so a house will not be crushed
under its own weight
Disadvantages of bricks:
 They are brittle, so the bricks can
break if handled carelessly during
construction
Ceramics and Polymer
 Ceramics and Polymer
Polymer:
 Plastics (or polymers) are generally organic compounds based upon
carbon and hydrogen.
 Have very large molecular structures.
 Low density and are not stable at high temperatures.
 They can be readily formed into complex shapes.
 Their strength, stiffness, and melting temperatures are generally much
lower than those of metals and ceramics.
 Their light weight, low cost, and ease of forming make them the preferred
material for many engineering applications.
Plasticity and Elasticity
 Plasticity and Elasticity
 Objects deform when pushed, pulled, and twisted.
 Elasticity is the measure of the amount that the object can return to its
original shape after these external forces and pressures stop.
 This is what allows springs to store elastic potential energy.
 The opposite of elasticity is plasticity; when something is stretched, and it
stays stretched, the material is said to be plastic.
 When energy goes into changing the shape of some material and it stays
changed, that is said to be plastic deformation.
 When the material goes back to its original form, that's elastic
deformation.
 Mechanical energy is lost whenever an object undergoes plastic
deformation.
 Plasticity and Elasticity

 Most materials have an amount of force or pressure for which they

deform elastically. If more force or pressure is applied, then they have
plastic deformation.
 Materials that have a fair amount of plastic deformation before breaking
are said to be ductile.
 Materials that can't stretch or bend much without breaking are said to be
brittle.
 Copper is quite ductile, which is part of why it is used for wires (most
metals are ductile, but copper especially so).
 Glass and ceramics are often brittle; they will break rather than bend.
Plasticity and Elasticity
 Metal, Semiconductor and Insulator

 Each electron in an isolated atom must lie in a orbit.

 Two atoms close to each other : each level can be split up into two levels.
 𝑛 atoms close to each other: each level can be split up into 𝑛 levels.
 Set of closely spaced levels: Energy band.
 Valence band: Highest occupied band.
 Conduction band: Lowest unfilled band.
 Fermi level: divides filled and empty bands.
Metal, Semiconductor and Insulator
Silicon Energy Band
Queries
?
 References

1. Puri, R.K. and Babbar, V.K., 2008. Solid state physics and electronics. S. Chand Publishing.
2. Gias Uddin Ahmad, 2013. Physics for Engineers(Part- II). Hafiz Book Centre.
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page.
4. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/index.html
5. https://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/
6. https://chem.libretexts.org/
7. Other websites