Introduction

Powder metallurgy is a forming and fabrication technique consisting of

three major processing stages.
First, the primary material is physically powdered, divided into many
small individual particles. Next, the powder is injected into a mold or
passed through a die to produce a weakly cohesive structure (via cold
welding) very near the dimensions of the object ultimately to be
manufactured.
Finally, the end part is formed by applying pressure, high temperature,
long setting times (during which self-welding occurs), or any
combination thereof.
Powder Metallurgy products are today used in a wide range of
industries, from automotive and aerospace applications to power tools
and household appliances. Each year the international PM awards
highlight the developing capabilities of the technology.[1]

Various components can be formed with the powder
compaction process. Some examples of these parts
are bearings, bushings, gears, pistons, levers, and
brackets. When pressing these shapes, very good
dimensional and weight control are maintained. In a
number of these applications the parts may require
very little additional work for their intended use;
making for very cost efficient manufacturing.

Powder preparation

The following powder preparation methods are used:
Atomization

Atomization is one of the most effective industrial powder preparation
methods.
This method involves desintagration (atomizing) of liquid metal by
means of high speed medium (air, inert gas, water) striking the melt
streaming through a nozzle.
The molten alloy is prepared in a furnace and then it is transferred to
the tundish.
The melt is poured from the tundish through the nozzle into the
chamber.
The water (air, gas) jets break the melt stream into fine droplets.
The droplets solidify when they fall in the chamber.
The powder is collected at the bottom of the chamber.
The powder is removed from the chamber and dried (if necessary).

Comminution
Comminution is a mechanical method of powder
preparation involving breaking solid particles in mills
(ball, vibratory, hummer).
This method is generally applied for the preparation
of powders of brittle materials.
The most widely used communition machine is ball
mill, utilizing the energy of steel steel balls, which
move in a rotating jar and crush the metal pieces
into fine particles.
Chemical methods
Metal powders may be prepared by reduction of the
metal oxides (carbides) followed by mechanical
crushing or precipitation of metals from solution
(hydrometallurgical method).
Powder may be also prepared by electrolytic
deposition of a metal at the cathode followed by
mechanical crushing of the deposited material. This
method is used for fabrication of copper powders.
These methods are called chemical powder
preparation methods.
Powder characteristics

Particle shape.
Particle may be spherical (gas atomization), irregularly shaped
(water atomization), porous (reduced oxides), dendrite like
(electrolytic deposition).
Particle size.
Size distribution (relative quantities of different size fractions).
Apparent density the mass of a unite volume of the powder,
which was freely (without pressing or tapping) poured into the
container.
Apparent density is a function of porosity of the particles,
regularity of their shapes and variety of their sizes.
Compressibility degree to which the powder compacts as a
function of the applied pressure.
Flowability ability of the powder to flow through a calibrated
orifice

Die pressing of metallic powders
Die pressing (molding) is the powder compaction
method involving uniaxial pressure applied to the
powder placed in a die between two rigid punches.
Die (uniaxial) pressing is effectively used for mass
production of simple parts (alternative method is
isostatic pressing).
The scheme of the die pressing method is
presented in the picture:


The pressing process consists of the following stages:
Die filling.
At this stage a controlled amount of the powder is fed into the die
cavity.
Compaction.
Upper punch moves down and presses the powder with a
predetermined pressure. The pressure varies between 10,000
psi to 120,000 psi (69 MPa to 830 MPa).
Green compact part ejection and removal (green compact
unsintered powder compact) .
The pressing cycle repeats 400 to 5000 times/hour, depending
on the press type, powder filling properties and the part size and
geometry.
Hydraulic and mechanical presses with load up to
750 tons are used for the powder die pressing.
Die pressing, which is conducted at thr room
temperature is called cold pressing.
If the pressing process is conducted at increased
temperature it is called hot pressing.
Hot pressing permits obtaining better compaction,
higher green compact density and higher (than in
cold pressing) strength of the part.


Sintering of metals
Sintering is the method involving consolidation of powder grains
by heating the green compact part to a high temperature below
the melting point, when the material of the separate particles
diffuse to the neghbouring powder particles.

During the diffusion process the pores, taking place in the green
compact, diminish or even close up, resulting in densification of
the part, improvement of its mechanical properties.
Decrease of the porosity, caused by the sintering process, is
determined by the level of the initial porosity of the green
compact, sintering temperature and time.

Sintering is enhanced if a liquid phase takes part in
the process. This occurs when the powder contains
a component, having the melting point lower, than
the melting point of the base metal (for example in
copper-lead-tin bearing alloys).
Continuous belt furnaces are commonly used for the
sintering process.
In this machine a mesh belt conveyor moves the
parts through a long tube like furnace.
Typical sintering furnace has three zones:
Preheat zone for removing lubricant and other organic materials;

Sintering zone, where the diffusion occurs;

Cooling zone, where the sintered parts cool down.
Sintering process may be conducted in different atmospheres: air, inert
atmosphere, reducing atmosphere (containing Hydrogen or carbon
monoxide) or in vacuum.
Sintering occurs simultaneously with pressing in the hot pressing
processes (hot isostatic pressing, hot die pressing).
All commercially used metals may be sintered
ADVANTAGES
Advantages of Powder Metallurgy for Part Production
The technical and commercial advantages of producing parts
from powder can be summarised as below:
production to near nett shape
few or no secondary operations
high material utilisation from low levels of in process
scrap
homogeneous powder, and hence part, chemical composition
due to absence of gross solidification segregation and uniform
pre-alloyed powder particle composition

unique compositions and structures possible as
there is no melting e.g. introduction of specific
particles to give special properties such as silica and
graphite in brake pads, and porosity in bearings for
oil retention
non-equilibrium compositions possible e.g.
copper-chromium alloys metallurgical
structures are usually fine and isotropic e.g. carbide
distribution in atomised high speed steel powder
parts

limitations
costs of powder production
limitations on the shapes and features which
can be generated e.g. the process cannot produce
re-entrant angles by fixed die pressing or radial
holes in vertically pressed cylinders
the size will always change on sintering. This
can usually be predicted as it depends on a number
of factors including as-pressed density which can
be controlled
potential workforce health problems from
atmospheric contamination of the workplace