COOLING TOWER BASICS

COOLING TOWER TERMINOLOGY

COOLING TOWER FUNCTION
COOLING TOWER TYPES




COMPILED BY
RUPESH G DESAI
EXECUTIVE(ENGG SERVICES)
COOLING TOWER TERMINOLOGY


EVAPORATIVE COOLING
HEAT TRANSFER WHERE A LIQUID
CONDENSES INTO ITS GASOUS STATE
THEREBY GIVING UP ITS LATENT HEAT



RANGE
IT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE
WATER TEMPERATURE ENTERING THE
COOLING TOWER HOT WATER
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND COLD
WATER TEMP LEAVING THE SUMP OF
COOLING TOWER.


The cooling tower efficiency can be expressed as:
= (ti - to) 100 / (ti - twb)
where
= cooling tower efficiency - common range
between 70 - 75%
ti = inlet temperature of water to the tower (oC, oF)
to = outlet temperature of water from the tower (oC,
oF)
twb = wet bulb temperature of air (oC, oF)

DRIFT
Water droplets that are carried out of the
cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift
droplets have the same concentration of
impurities as the water entering the tower.
The drift rate is typically reduced by
employing baffle-like devices, called drift
eliminators, through which the air must travel
after leaving the fill and spray zones of the
tower.

BLOW-DOWN
The portion of the circulating water flow that
is removed in order to maintain the amount of
dissolved solids and other impurities at an
acceptable level.

BLOW-OUT
Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower
by wind, generally at the air inlet openings.
Water may also be lost, in the absence of
wind, through splashing or misting. Devices
such as wind screens, louvers, splash
deflectors and water diverters are used to
limit these losses.

Water Make-up
Water losses include evaporation, drift (water
entrained in discharge vapor), and blow down (water
released to discard solids).
Drift losses are estimated to be between 0.1 and
0.2% of water supply.
Evaporation Loss = 0.00085 * water flow rate*(T1-T2)
Blow down Loss =Evaporation Loss/(COC-1)
where COC is the ratio of solids in the circulating
water to the solids in the make-up water
Total Losses = Drift Losses + Evaporation Losses +
Blow down Losses

DRY BULB TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE OF AMBIENT AIR
MEASURED IN REGULAR MANNER WITH
CONVENTIONAL INSTRUMENTS

DEW POINT
TEMPERATURE AT WHICH GIVEN
MIXTURE OF AIR AND WATER WILL HAVE
RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF 100%
SATURATOIN


WET BULB TEMPERATURE
The lowest temperature that can be obtained
by evaporating water into the air at constant
pressure. The name comes from the
technique of putting a wet cloth over the bulb
of a mercury thermometer and then blowing
air over the cloth until the water evaporates.
Since evaporation takes up heat, the
thermometer will cool to a lower temperature
than a thermometer with a dry bulb at the
same time and place.




PLENUM
THE ENCLOSED SPACE BETWEEN THE
DRIFT ELIMINATORS AND THE FAN
STACK IN INDUCED DRAFT TOWERS OF
THE ENCLOSED SPACE BETWEEN THE
FAN AND FILLING IN THE FORCED DRAFT
TOWER

PLUME
VISIBLE EXAUST FROM COOLING TOWER

FAN PITCH
THE ANGLE WHICH A FAN BLADE MAKES
WITH THE PALNE OF ROTATON ,
DEGREES FROM HORIZONTAL






CROSS FLOW




FUNCTION OF COOLING TOWER

The primary task of a cooling tower is to reject
heat into the atmosphere. This heat rejection is
accomplished through the natural process of
evaporation that takes place when air and
water are brought into direct contact in the
cooling tower. The evaporation is most efficient
when the maximum water surface area is
exposed to the maximum flow of air, for the
longest possible period of time

FUNCTION OF COOLING TOWER
The primary task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the
atmosphere. This heat rejection is accomplished through the natural
process of evaporation that takes place when air and water are
brought into direct contact in the cooling tower. The evaporation is
most efficient when the maximum water surface area is exposed to
the maximum flow of air, for the longest possible period of time.
Cooling towers are designed in two different configurations, counter
flow and cross flow. The specific configuration indicates the direction
of air flow through the tower relative to the direction of the water
flow. Cooling tower water and air distribution systems are designed
in concert, with each playing an equally important role in
determining the efficiency and proper application of the cooling
tower.


COOLING TOWER TYPES

ATMOSPHERIC
MECHANICAL DRAFT
a. FORCED DRAFT
b. INDUCED DRAFT
HYBRID DRAFT
TYPED BY AIR FLOW
a. COUNTERFLOW
b. CROSSFLOW
b.1 DOUBLE-FLOW
b.2 SINGLE-FLOW
c. SPRAY-FILLED
TYPED BY CONSTRUCTION
a. FIELD-ERECTED
b. FACTORY-ASSEMBLED
TYPED BY SHAPE
a. RECTILINEAR
b. ROUND MECHANICAL DRAFT (RMD)
TYPED BY METHOD OF HEAT TRANSFER
a. EVAPORATIVE
b. DRY TOWER
c. PLUME ABATEMENT

ATMOSPHERIC

The atmospheric cooling towers utilize no
mechanical fan to create air flow through
the tower, its air is derived from a natural
induction flow provided by a pressure spray.
We can see it in the following picture:
ATMOSPHERIC COOLING TOWERS




MECHANICAL DRAFT

Mechanical draft towers uses fans (one or more) to move large
quantities of air through the tower. They are two different classes:
Forced draft cooling towers
Induced draft cooling towers

The air flow in either class may be cross flow or counter flow with
respect to the falling water. Cross flow indicates that the airflow is
horizontal in the filled portion of the tower while counter flow means
the air flow is in the opposite direction of the falling water.
The counter flow tower occupies less floor space than a cross flow
tower but is taller for a given capacity. The principle advantages of
the cross flow tower are the low pressure drop in relation to its
capacity and lower fan power requirement leading to lower energy
costs.
All mechanical towers must be located so that the discharge air
diffuses freely without recirculation through the tower, and so that air
intakes are not restricted. Cooling towers should be located as near
as possible to the systems they serve, but should never be located
below them so as to allow the condenser water to drain out of the
system through the tower basin when the system is shut down.

FORCED DRAFT

The forced draft tower, shown in the picture,
has the fan, basin, and piping located within
the tower structure. In this model, the fan is
located at the base. There are no louvered
exterior walls. Instead, the structural steel or
wood framing is covered with paneling made
of aluminum, galvanized steel, or asbestos
cement boards
FORCED DRAFT
FORCED DRAFT
During operation, the fan forces air at a low
velocity horizontally through the packing and
then vertically against the downward flow of
the water that occurs on either side of the
fan. The drift eliminators located at the top of
the tower remove water entrained in the air.
Vibration and noise are minimal since the
rotating equipment is built on a solid
foundation. The fans handle mostly dry air,
greatly reducing erosion and water
condensation problems.

INDUCED DRAFT

The induced draft tower show in the following
picture has one or more fans, located at the
top of the tower, that draw air upwards
against the downward flow of water passing
around the wooden decking or packing. Since
the airflow is counter to the water flow, the
coolest water at the bottom is in contact with
the driest air while the warmest water at the
top is in contact with the moist air, resulting in
increased heat transfer efficiency.
INDUCED DRAFT

HYBRID DRAFT

They are equipped with mechanical draft
fans to augment airflow. Consequently, they
are also referred to as fan-assisted natural
draft towers. The intent of their design is to
minimize the horsepower required for the air
movement, but to do so with the least
possible stack cost impact. Properly
designed the fans may need to be operated
only during periods at high ambient and
peak loads.
HYBRID DRAFT

CHARACTERIZATION BY AIR FLOW

COUNTERFLOW:
IN the counter flow towers, the air moves vertically upward
through the fill, counter to the downward fall of water. Because
of the need for extended intake and discharge plenums; the
use of high pressure spray systems; and the typically higher air
pressure losses, some of the smaller counter flow towers are
physically higher; require more pump head; and utilize more
fan power than their cross flow counterparts. In a larger
counter flow towers, however, the use of low pressure gravity-
related distribution systems, plus the availability of generous
intake areas and plenum spaces for the air management, is
tending to equalize, or even reverse, this situation. The
enclosed nature of a counter flow tower also restricts exposure
of the water to direct sunlight, thereby retarding the growth of
the algae.
COUNTER FLOW

CROSSFLOW:
The cross flow towers have a fill configuration
through, which the air flows horizontally,
across the downward fall of water. Water to
be cooled is delivered to hot water inlet
basins located atop the fill areas, and is
distributed to the fill by gravity throught
metering orifices in the floor of those basins.

The cross flow towers can be divided in:
DOUBLE-FLOW:
In this kind of towers the fan is inducting air through
two inlets and across two banks of fill.

SINGLE-FLOW:
This kind of towers only has one air inlet and one fill
bank, the remaining three sides of the towers being
cased. Single-flow towers are customarily used in
locations where are unrestricted air path to the tower
is available from only one direction.
SINGLE FLOW


SPRAY FILLED
This kind of towers has not a heat transfer
surface, depending only upon the water
break-up af-forded by the distribution
system to promote maximum water-to-air
SPRAY FILLED


CHARACTERIZATION BY CONSTRUCTION

FIELD-ERECTED:
The field-erected cooling towers are those on which
the primary construction activity takes place at the
site of ultimate use. All large towers, and many of
the smaller towers, are prefabricated, piece-market
and shipped to the site for the cooling towers
manufacturer usually provides final assembly.

FACTORY-ASSEMBLED:
The factory-assembled cooling towers undergo
virtually complete assembly at their point of
manufacture, whereupon there are shipped to the
site in as a few sections as mode of transportation
will permit.

TYPED BY SHAPE

RECTILINEAR:
These towers are constructed in cellular fashion,
increasing linearly to the length and numbers of
cells necessary to accomplish a special thermal
performance.

ROUND MECHANICAL DRAFT:
Are towers as the name implies, are essentially
round in plan configuration, with fans clustered as
close practicable around the center point of the
tower. Multi-faceted towers, such as the octagonal
mechanical draft (OMD) also fall in the general
classification of round towers.
RECTILINEAR

ROUND MECHANICAL DRAFT


TYPED BY METHOD OF HEAT TRANSFER

All of the cooling towers described here are evaporative type
towers, in that they derive their primary cooling effect from the
evaporation that takes place when air and water are brought
into the direct contact. At the other end of the spectrum is the
Dry tower, where by full utilization of dry surface coil sections,
no direct contact (and no evaporation) occurs between air and
water. Hence sensible heat transfer cools the water totally.

IN between these extremes are the plume abatement and
water conservation towers, wherein progressively greater
portions of dry surface coil sections are introduced into the
overall heat transfer system to alleviate specific problems or to
accomplish specific requirements.
HOT WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The overall efficiency of a cooling tower is directly related to the
design of the tower's hot water distribution system. The primary
consideration in selecting the type of hot water distribution
system for a specific application is pump head. The pump head
imposed by a cooling tower consists of the static lift (related to
the height of the inlet) plus the pressure necessary to move the
water through the distribution system and over the fill. The pump
head varies according to the cooling tower configuration.
Counter flow towers use a high pressure spray nozzle hot water
distribution system to achieve water coverage of the fill. The
nozzle spray pattern is sensitive to changes in water flow, and
consequent change in nozzle pressure. The air movement is
vertically upward through the fill, counter to the downward fall of
the water (Figure 1). Counter flow towers typically have a smaller
footprint than cross flow towers, but require additional height,
static lift, and dynamic head to achieve the same cooling effect.


Cross flow towers utilize a distinctly different type of water
distribution system. Hot water is distributed to the fill by gravity
through metering orifices in the floor of the inlet basin. There is
no pressure spray distribution system. The air movement is
horizontally through the fill, across the downward fall of the water
(Figure 2). In cross flow towers, the internal pressure component
of pump head is insignificant because maximum flow is achieved
by gravity.
Compared to cross flow towers, counter flow towers may require
up to five or six psig added pump head to achieve the proper
spray distribution. The high counter flow pumping head
requirement (tower height plus nozzle pressure) leads to a higher
first cost pumping system and significantly higher annual pump
energy consumption and operating costs. If the system
condenser pumps are not properly sized, the additional pump
head required in counter flow towers may result in inadequate
hot water flow, reducing tower efficiency and performance
AIR FLOW DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Cooling tower performance is also related to the amount of air
moving through the tower and coming into direct contact with the
water. In counter flow towers the air movement is vertically
upward through the fill, counter to the downward fall of the water.
This configuration, along with the finer water droplet size
available from pressurized spray nozzles,
allows counter flow towers to make more efficient use of
available air. However, the resistance to upward air travel against
the falling water results in higher static pressure loss and greater
fan horsepower than a cross flow system.
Cross flow towers have a fill configuration through which air flows
horizontally across the downward flow of the water. Cross flow
towers utilize essentially the full tower height for inlet louvers,
reducing air inlet velocity and minimizing recirculation and drift
loss. The air inlet louvers in counter flow towers are restricted to
the tower base, increasing inlet velocities and susceptibility to
airborne trash and other debris
CROSS FLOW
CROSS FLOW
ADVANTAGES OF CROSSFLOW cooling towers due to their
gravity flow hot water distribution system:
Low pumping head.
Lower first cost pumping systems.
Lower annual energy consumption and operating costs.
Accepts larger variation in water flow without adverse effect on
the water distribution pattern (flat plate heat exchanger operation
in winter).
Easy maintenance access to distribution nozzles.

DISADVANTAGES OF CROSSFLOW cooling towers due to their
gravity flow hot water distribution system:
Low pressure head on the distribution pan may encourage orifice
clogging and less water breakup at spray nozzle.
Exposure to air in the hot water basin may accelerate algae
growth. Larger footprint.
COUNTERFLOW

COUNTERFLOW
ADVANTAGES OF COUNTERFLOW cooling towers due to their
pressurized spray water distribution system:
Increased tower height accommodates longer ranges and closer
approaches.
More efficient use of air due to finer droplet size from pressure
sprays.

DISADVANTAGES OF COUNTERFLOW cooling towers due to
their pressurized spray water distribution system:
Increased system pumping head requirements.
Increased energy consumption and operating costs.
Distribution nozzles difficult to inspect and clean.
Requires individual risers for each cell, increasing external piping
costs.
CROSSFLOW

ADVANTAGES OF CROSSFLOW cooling towers due to their
horizontal air distribution system:
Low static pressure drop.
Reduced drift.
Reduced recirculation.
More air per fan horsepower.
Larger diameter fans can be used so that fewer cells are required
for a given capacity.
Lower energy and operating costs.

DISADVANTAGES OF CROSSFLOW cooling towers due to their
horizontal air distribution system:
Larger louver surface area makes icing more difficult to control.
COUNTERFLOW

ADVANTAGES OF COUNTERFLOW cooling towers due to their
vertical air distribution system:
The vertical air movement across the fill allows the coldest water
to be in contact with the driest air maximizing tower performance.

DISADVANTAGES OF COUNTERFLOW cooling towers due to
their vertical air distribution system:
The resistance to upward air travel against the falling water
results in higher static pressure loss and a greater fan
horsepower than in cross flow towers.
The restricted louver area at the base with high velocity of inlet
air increases the fan horsepower.
Tendency for uneven distribution of air through the fill with very
little movement near the walls and center of the tower.
High inlet velocities are liable to suck airborne trash and dirt into
the tower.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The air and water distribution systems for counter flow and cross flow
cooling towers have advantages and disadvantages inherent in their
respective designs. It cannot be said that one is better than the other.
Rather, with the proper application, both configurations are cost
effective and can serve the end user well.
Cross flow cooling towers should be specified when the following
criteria and limitations are important:
To minimize pump head.
To minimize pumping and piping first costs.
To minimize operating costs.
When condenser water flow variance is expected.
When ease of maintenance is a concern.
Counter flow cooling towers should be specified when the following
criteria and limitations are important:
When space (footprint) is restricted.
When icing is of extreme concern.
When pumping is designed for additional pressure drop.