ChapterSeven:

DigitalCommunication

Introduction
Manysignalsinmoderncommunicationsystems
aredigital
Additionally,analogsignalsaretransmitted
digitally
Digitizingasignalresultsinreduceddistortion
andimprovementinsignaltonoiseratios

Typesof
Signal
Transmission

ChannelsandInformationCapacity
Allpracticalcommunicationchannelsarebandlimited
Therearetheoreticallimitstotherateatwhichdatamay
betransmitted
Therelationshipbetweentime,informationcapacity,
andchannelbandwidthisgivenbyHartleysLaw:

I ktB

ShannonHartleyTheorem
Thereisalimittotheamountofdatathatcanbe
sentinagivenbandwidth:

C 2B log 2 M

PulseModulation
Nyquistshowedthatitispossibletoreconstructabandlimitedsignal
fromperiodicsamples,aslongasthesamplingrateisatleasttwice
thefrequencyoftheofhighestfrequencycomponentofthesignal
Severaltypesofsamplingareavailableforpulsemodulation

SamplingRateErrors
Samplingratesthat
aretoolowresult
inaliasingor
foldover
Thefigures
illustratecorrect
andincorrect
samplingrates:

Sampling
Samplingaloneisnotadigitaltechnique
Theimmediateresultofsamplingisapulseamplitude
modulation(PAM)signal
PAMisananalogschemeinwhichtheamplitudeofthe
pulseisproportionaltotheamplitudeofthesignalatthe
instantofsampling
Anotheranalogpulseformingtechniqueisknownaspulse
durationmodulation(PDM).Thisisalsoknownaspulse
widthmodulation(PWM)
PulsepositionmodulationiscloselyrelatedtoPDM

AnalogPulseModulationTechniques

PulseCodeModulation
PulseCodeModulation(PCM)isthemostcommonlyused
digitalmodulationscheme
InPCM,theavailablerangeofsignalvoltagesisdivided
intolevelsandeachisassignedabinarynumber
Eachsampleisrepresentedbyabinarynumberand
transmittedserially
Thenumberoflevelsavailabledependsuponthenumber
ofbitsusedtoexpressthesamplevalue
Thenumberoflevelsisgivenby:N=2m

Quantizing
TheprocessofconvertinganalogsignalstoPCMiscalled
quantizing
Sincetheoriginalsignalcanhaveaninfinitenumberof
signallevels,thequantizingprocesswillproduceerrors
calledquantizingerrorsorquantizingnoise
Thedynamicrangeofasystemistheratioofthestrongest
possiblesignalthatcanbetransmittedandtheweakest
discerniblesignal
InalinearPCMsystem,themaximumdynamicrangeis
foundby:

DR=(1.76+6.02m)dB

Companding
Compandingisusedtoimprovedynamicrange
Compressionisusedonthetransmittingendand
expandingisusedonthereceivingend,hence
companding

CodingandDecoding
Theprocessofconvertingananalogsignalinto
PCMiscalledcoding,theinverseoperationis
calleddecoding
BothproceduresareaccomplishedinaCODEC

PCMCoding

DeltaModulation
InDeltaModulation,onlyonebitistransmittedper
sample
Thatbitisaoneifthecurrentsampleismorepositive
thantheprevioussample,andazeroifitismore
negative
Sincesolittleinformationistransmitted,delta
modulationrequireshighersamplingratesthanPCM
forequalqualityofreproduction

LineCodes
Linecodesaremethodsofconvertingbinarynumbersback
intoanalogvoltagesorcurrents
Thesimplestlinecodeistousethepresenceorabsenceof
avoltage/currenttoindicatethelogicstate
UnipolarNRZ(nonreturntozero)meansthatthereisno
requirementforasignaltoreturntozeroattheendofeach
element
RZ(returntozero)methodsareusedtoeliminatelow
frequencyaccomponentsanddccomponents

BipolarNRZCode

TimeDivisionMultiplexing
Therearetwobasictypesofmultiplexing:
Frequencydivisionmultiplexing(FDM
Timedivisionmultiplexing

InTDM,eachinformationsignalisallowedtouseall
availablebandwidth
Intheory,itispossibletotodividethebandwidthorthe
timeamongtheusersofachannel
Continuouslyvariablesignals,suchasanalog,arenotwell
adaptedtoTDMbecausethesignalispresentallthetime

TDMinTelephony
TDMisusedextensivelyintelephony
ThemostcommonstandardistheDS1signal,which
consistsof24PCMvoicechannels,multiplexedusingTDM
Eachchannelissampledat8kHzwith8bitspersample,
whichgivesabitrateof64kb/sforeachvoicechannel
Thesamplesmustbetransmittedattheratetheywere
obtainedtobereconstructed
Theoverallbitrateis1.544Mb/s
ThewholesystemisknownasaT1Carrier

DigitalSignalHierarchy
Carrier

Signal

Voice
Channels

BitRate
(Mb/s)

Typical
Medium

T1

DS1

24

1.544

Twistedpair

T1C

DS1C

48

3.152

Twistedpair

T2

DS2

96

6.312

Lowcapacitance
twistedpair
microwave

T3

DS3

672

44.736

Coax,microwave

T4

DS4

4032

274.176

Coax,fiberoptic

T5

DS5

8064

560.16

Fiberoptics

DataCompression
Datacompressionisatechniqueusedtoreduce
thebandwidthtotransmitananalogsignalina
digitalform
Theexactbandwidthnecessaryisdependentupon
themodulationscheme

LossyandLosslessCompression
Therearetwomaincategoriesofdatacompression:
Losslesscompressioninvolvestransmittingallofthe
dataintheoriginalsignalbutusingfewerbits.Lossless
compressiongenerallylooksforredundanciesinthedata
Lossycompressionallowsforsomereductioninthe
qualityofthetransmittedsignal.Lossycompression
involvesreducingthenumberofbitspersampleor
reducingthesamplingrate

Vocoders
Avocoder(voicecoder)isanexampleoflossy
compressionappliedtohumanspeech
Atypicalvocoderreducestheamountofdatathat
needstobetransmittedbyconstructingamodelof
thehumanvocalsystem

VocoderTypes
Therearetwomain
waysofgenerating
theexcitationsignal
inalinearpredictive
vocoder:
PulseExcitedLinear
Predictive(PELP)
ResidualExcited
LinearPredictive
(RELP)