WELCOME TO THIS COURSE ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN ELECTRICAL UTILITIES

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

UNIT-I

ELECTRIC MOTORS
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

UNIT-II

FANS AND BLOWERS

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM
COOLING TOWER

UNIT-III

DG SET SYSTEMS
ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN
ELECTRICAL UTILITIES
UNIT I

CHAPTER I
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

UNIT I

Introduction

Electricity is a general term

encompassing a variety of
phenomena resulting from the
presence and flow of electric charge.
Electric Power Supply System is an
aggregate of equipment used to
transmit and distribute electricity
from sources to consumers.

Classification
Electrical Systems may be classified by:
type of current (direct and
alternating)
plant location (overhead and cable)
layout (circular and radial)
normal operating mode (open and
closed)

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

UNIT I

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Generation, Transmission and Distribution of Electricity

Electricity is generated in a number of ways, the most prominent of all are

thermal power plants, hydroelectric power plants, nuclear power plants, etc.
There are other ways of producing electricity which are called NonConventional Energy sources; which include windmill, solar systems, tidal
energy etc.
The term transmission is used for the process of transporting electricity at a
very high voltage and the transmission is in bulk amount.
Transmission is a link between Generation and Distribution.
Distribution of electricity denotes sending electricity from substations where
it is transmitted and received followed by its distribution to various points of
utilisation.

UNIT I
Important
Equipment

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

UNIT I

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Electrical Load Management and Maximum Demand Control

In the utilisation of electrical energy, there are three fundamental parameters
which one has to understand. They are:

Load Factor

Diversity Factor

Utilisation Factor

Maximum Demand
Maximum Demand is measured during a prefixed time duration of either 15
minutes or 30 minutes and then multiplied by either four or two respectively to
give kVAH per hour i.e. KVA. Thus, at the end of each time cycle, the timer is
reset and fresh measurement starts.

Contracted Maximum Demand (CMD)

Contracted Maximum Demand (CMD) is the demand mutually agreed between
the supply company and the consumer by way of a signed contract.

UNIT I

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Connected Load
Connected load is the sum of the nameplate ratings of all the equipment utilising
electricity inside the consumer installation.
Average load is energy consumption recorded divided by the operating hours of
the plant.
Load Factor = (Average Load)/ (Maximum Demand) always less than 1.
Diversity Factor = (Connected Load)/ (Maximum Demand) always more than
1.
Utilisation Factor=(Average Load)/(Connected Load) always less than 1.
Utilisation Factor = (Load Factor) / (Diversity Factor)

Power Factor

Power Factor is a ratio of kW to KVA which

is always less than or equal to unity. This is
represented by a famous triangular
relation.

UNIT I

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Leading and Lagging Power Factor

Position of Power Factor Correction Capacitors

The ideal location for capacitors is to provide them as close to the point of
utilisation as possible. But there are certain practical difficulties:
Introduction of capacitors demands a cutting out device which will disconnect
them from the live circuit as soon as the main equipment is switched off.
If not done, this may result in either the power factor going to the leading
side but less than unity again. Moreover it may also result in voltage surges
which may damage the installation.
Hence installing capacitors for each individual equipment becomes expensive
and may work out to be uneconomical.

UNIT I

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Performance Assessment of Power Factor Correction Capacitors

Once the power factor capacitors are installed, they continuously need to be
monitored for their performance. Their performance depends on voltage as
well as ambient temperature.
The capacitor before failing totally, gives a number of indications showing the
deterioration of their performance. This can be monitored by recording the
daily reading or hourly reading of the consumption and power factor by the
user. However specialised testing can be done by the manufacturer to know
the exact reason for the failure.

Transformer

The transformer is one of the most widely used electrical equipment. The main
function of the transformer is to either increase voltage or to reduce voltage.

UNIT I

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Rating of the Transformer

Rating of the transformer is calculated based on the connected load and applying
the diversity factor on the connected load, applicable to the particular industry
and arriving at the kVA rating of the Transformer. The diversity factor is defined
as the ratio of overall maximum demand of the plant to the sum of individual
maximum demand of various equipment.

Location of the Transformer

Location of the transformer is very important as far as distribution losses are
concerned. A transformer receives HT voltage from the grid and steps it down to
the required voltage. Transformers should be placed close to the load centre,
considering other features like optimisation needs for centralised control,
operational flexibility, etc. This brings down distribution losses in cables.

Losses and Efficiency of a Transformer

The efficiency varies anywhere between 96 to 99 percent.
The efficiency of transformers not only depends on the
design, but also, on the effective operating load.
Transformer losses consist of two parts:
No-load loss
Load loss

UNIT I
Control Used for Voltage Fluctuation
The control of voltage in a transformer is
important due to frequent changes in the supply
voltage level. Voltage regulation in transformers
is done by altering the voltage transformation
ratio with the help of tapping.

The Parallel Operation of Transformers

Whenever two transformers are operating in

parallel, both should be technically identical in
all aspects and more importantly should have
the same impedance level. This minimises the
circulating current between transformers.
Where the load is fluctuating in nature, it is
preferable to have more than one transformer
running in parallel, so that the load can be
optimised by sharing it between transformers.
The transformers can be operated close to the
maximum efficiency range by this operation.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER II
ELECTRIC MOTORS

UNIT I

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Introduction
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the interaction
between the magnetic fields set up in the stator and rotor windings. Electric
motors are undoubtedly the largest prime movers used. Industrial electric motors
can be broadly classified as:
induction motors
direct current motors
synchronous motors
All

motor types have the same four operating components which are:
stator (stationary windings)
rotor (rotating windings)
bearings
frame (enclosure)

Types of Motors
There are two main types of motors:
DC Motors
AC Motors

UNIT I
Industrial Classification of Motors
Industrial electric motors are generally classified as:
direct current motors (DC motors)
synchronous motors (AC motors)
induction motors (induced magnetic field)

ELECTRIC MOTORS

UNIT I

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Direct Current Motors (DC Motors)

DC motors have a stationary field winding housed in a stator and rotating
armature called rotor. The rotor winding rotate in front of alternating rotor poles,
north and south poles. This tries to reverse the current in the winding. To
overcome this problem, a commutator and brush arrangement is provided.
Depending on the field and armature connections, the motors are classified into
different categories:
Separately Excited Motor
Self excited motor

Advantages of DC Motors
The main advantage of DC motors is speed control, which does not affect the
quality of power supply. It can be controlled by adjusting:
the armature voltage increasing the armature voltage will increase the speed
the field current reducing the field current will increase the speed

UNIT I

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Disadvantages of DC Motors
The disadvantages of these motors are mainly their initial cost and maintenance
of brushes and the commutator. Moreover they require a separate cooling
arrangement.

UNIT I

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Synchronous/AC Motors

In these motors, the stator is given a three phase A.C. supply. The Rotor is
given a DC supply through brushes and slip rings. The stator produces a
rotating magnetic field and the rotor field is locked into the synchronism of the
rotating magnetic field.

The main advantage of this motor was that by controlling the rotor
excitation, the power factor of the motor could be controlled and the motor
could be made to operate with a leading power factor.

The evident disadvantages of this motor were:

the slip ring and brush maintenance and provision for the prime mover..
the initial cost of these motors also was high. But these days nobody opts
to use these motors.

UNIT I

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Induction Motors

Induction motors are the most commonly used prime mover for various
equipment in industrial applications.
In induction motors, the induced magnetic field of the stator winding induces
a current in the rotor.
This induced rotor current produces a second magnetic field, which tries to
oppose the stator magnetic field, and this causes the rotor to rotate.

There are two types of Induction Motors:

The slip ring induction motor: In this motor, the stator is given a three
phase A.C. supply. The rotor is shorted outside through slip rings and brushes.
The squirrel cage induction motor: A squirrel cage rotor is the rotating
part used in the most common form of AC induction motor. An electric motor
with a squirrel cage rotor is termed a squirrel cage motor.

UNIT I
The Power Factor
The power factor of the motor is given as:
Power factor = Cos = kW/kVA

Name Plate Parameters of a Motor

ELECTRIC MOTORS

UNIT I

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Motor Load
Because the efficiency of a motor is difficult to assess under normal operating
conditions, the motor load can be measured as an indicator of the motors
efficiency. As loading increases, the power factor and the motor efficiency increase
to an optimum value at around full load.

Motor Efficiency and its Losses

If power output is measured in Watt (W), efficiency can be expressed as:
m = Pout / Pin
Where
m = motor efficiency..
Pout = shaft power out (Watt, W)..
Pin = electric power in to the motor (Watt, W)
The losses can be generally classified into two categories:
Fixed losses are those which occur in the motor irrespective of the quantum
of load. These are also called no load losses.
Variable losses are those which are dependent on the quantum of the load.

UNIT I

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Factors Affecting Motor Performance

Motor performance depends on:
Partial load operation
Correct Application of the drive to suit the application
Application of rated voltage and frequency

Rewinding and Motor Replacement Issues

Many a times during the maintenance of motors, one has to encounter

rewinding of motors. The rewound motors seldom give the same performance
as original motors.
Due to this every time a motor is rewound, its useful life is affected and the
next rewinding is advanced. Hence motors rewound must be checked
thoroughly before loading them to the original loading pattern.

Energy Saving Opportunities with Energy Efficient Motors

CHAPTER III
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

UNIT I

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Introduction

Air compressors account for significant amount of electricity used in Indian

industries. Compressed air is an essential but costly utility and its use must be
made wisely.
Compressed air is generated from compressors which are largely driven by
electricity.
If efficiency is calculated, only 10% useful energy reaches the end point
through compressed air. Thus there is a vast scope for energy saving through
proper understanding of the functions of this utility and avoiding its wastage.

Classification of Compressors
Compressors are broadly classified as : Positive Displacement Compressors
Dynamic (Centrifugal) Compressors

UNIT I

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Positive displacement compressors

The compressors which increase the pressure of the gas by reducing the volume
are called positive displacement compressors. These compressors are further
classified into:
reciprocating compressors
rotary compressors

Dynamic compressors
Dynamic compressors increase the air velocity, which is then converted to
increased pressure at the outlet. They are basically centrifugal compressors and
are further divided into:
radial type
axial flow type

Compressor Capacity
Capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas compressed and
delivered at conditions of total temperature, total pressure, and composition
existing at the compressor inlet.

UNIT I

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Compressed Air System Components

Intake air
filters

Inter-stage
coolers

Moisture Drain
Traps

They prevent
dust from
entering the
compressor and
are normally
specified in
terms of microns
(indicating the
size below which
dust cannot be
prevented).
Hence before
choosing a filter,
it is worthwhile
to assess the
dust conditions
in the
surroundings.

During
compression the
temperature of
air increases,
especially when
multistage
compressors are
used, each
stage needs
cooling. Hence
coolers are
required and
they are mostly
water-cooled.
These are used
to remove the
rest of the
moisture which
may be left at
various
locations in the
pipelines.

These are used

at the end of
piping sections
to remove
moisture in
compressed air.
Various types of
moisture drain
traps are
available like
manual drain
cocks, timer
based /
automatic drain
valves etc.

Air Receivers
Air receivers are
provided to be
storage and
smoothening
vital air output reducing
pressure
variations from
the compressor.

UNIT I

COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Prerequisites for Efficient Operation of Compressor

There are a number of issues to be considered right at the stage of project
planning and also during operation. Few of them are listed below:
Compressor Location
Cool Air Intake
Dust free air intake
Dry Air
Appropriate Altitude
Optimum pressure settings

Factors Affecting Performance and Efficiency

Following are a few factors affecting the performance and efficiency of
compressors:
Lack of general awareness
Wrong application and extensions of existing pipelines
Wrong choice of system (distributive/ centralised )

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN
ELECTRICAL UTILITIES
UNIT II

CHAPTER I
HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Introduction

The Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and refrigeration

systems transfer heat energy from one environment to the other.
HVAC includes the bi-directional flow of heat, in the sense that when earth's
atmospheric temperature is too low, then the requirements of a closed
atmosphere are to be maintained. Heat is injected into the closed
atmosphere.
Refrigeration on the other hand, has a unidirectional flow of heat. It always
extracts heat from the closed atmosphere with the help of a low boiling point
refrigerant and dispels it into the open atmosphere of the earth.

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Air-Conditioning Systems
Depending on applications, there are several options / combinations, which are
available for use as given below:

Air Conditioning (for comfort / machine)

Split air conditioners

Fan coil units in a larger system

Air handling units in a larger system

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Refrigeration Systems (for processes)

Small capacity modular units of direct expansion type similar to domestic

refrigerators, small capacity refrigeration units.
Centralised chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary coolant for
temperature range over 50C typically. They can also be used for ice bank
formation.
Brine plants, which use brines as lower temperature, secondary coolant, for
typically sub zero temperature applications, which come as modular unit
capacities as well as large centralised plant capacities.

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Types of Refrigeration Systems

The two principle types of refrigeration plants found in industry include:

Vapour Compression Refrigeration (VCR)

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR)

VCR uses mechanical energy as the driving force for refrigeration, while VAR uses
thermal energy as the driving force for refrigeration.

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Evaporator

The refrigerant (water) evaporates at around 400C under a high vacuum

condition of 754mmHg in the evaporator.
Chilled water goes through heat exchanger tubes in the evaporator and
transfers heat to the evaporated refrigerant.
The evaporated refrigerant (vapour) turns into liquid again, while the latent
heat from this vaporization process cools the chilled water. The chilled water is
then used for cooling purposes.

Absorber

In order to keep evaporating, the refrigerant vapour must be discharged from

the evaporator and refrigerant (water) must be supplied.
The refrigerant vapour is absorbed into lithium bromide solution, which is
convenient to absorb the refrigerant vapour in the absorber.
The heat generated in the absorption process is continuously removed from
the system by cooling water.
The absorption also maintains the vacuum inside the evaporator

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

High Pressure Generator

As lithium bromide solution is diluted, the ability to absorb the refrigerant

vapour reduces.
In order to keep the absorption process going, the diluted lithium bromide
solution must be concentrated again.
An absorption chiller is provided with a solution concentrating system, called a
generator. Heating media such as steam, hot water, gas or oil perform the
function of concentrating solutions.
The concentrated solution is returned to the absorber to absorb refrigerant
vapour again.

Condenser
To complete the refrigeration cycle, and thereby ensuring the refrigeration takes
place continuously, the following two functions are required:
To concentrate and liquefy the evaporated refrigerant vapour, which is
generated in the high pressure generator.
To supply the condensed water to the evaporator as refrigerant (water).

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Types of Compressors used in Cooling Systems

Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors are the most efficient types , when they operate
near full load.
Their efficiency advantage is the greatest in large sizes and they offer
considerable economy of scale, so they dominate the market for large
chillers.
Reciprocating Compressors
The maximum efficiency of reciprocating compressors is lower than that of
centrifugal and screw compressors.

Efficiency is reduced by the clearance volume (the compressed gas volume

that is left at the top of the piston stroke), throttling losses at the intake and
discharge valves, abrupt changes in gas flow, and friction.
Screw Compressors
Screw compressors, sometimes called helical rotary compressors, compress
the refrigerant by trapping it in the threads of a rotating screw-shaped
rotor.
Scroll Compressors
The gas is compressed between two scroll-shaped vanes.
One of the vanes is fixed, and the other moves within it. The moving vane
does not rotate, but its centre revolves with respect to the centre of the fixed

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Selection of a Suitable Refrigeration System

A clear understanding of the cooling load to be met is the first and most
important part of designing/selecting the components of a refrigeration
system.
Important factors to be considered in quantifying the load are the actual
cooling need, heat (cool) leaks, and internal heat sources (from all heat
generating equipment).
Consideration should also be given to process changes and/or changes in
ambient conditions that might affect the load in the future.

UNIT II

HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Factors Affecting Performance and Energy Efficiency of

Refrigeration Plants
The various factors which affect the performance and energy efficiency of
refrigeration plants are as follows:
The Design of Process Heat Exchangers
Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces
Multi-staging for Efficiency
Matching Capacity to System Load
Capacity Control and Energy Efficiency

Energy Saving Opportunities

Cold Insulation
Insulate all cold lines / vessels using economic insulation thickness to
minimise heat gains; and to choose appropriate (correct) insulation.
Building Envelope
Optimise air conditioning volumes by measures such as use of false ceiling
and segregation of critical areas for air conditioning by air curtains.
Building Heat Loads Minimisation

Cold Insulation

CHAPTER II
FANS AND BLOWERS

UNIT II

FANS AND BLOWERS

Introduction

Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and industrial process
requirements.
Fans generate a pressure to move air (or gases) against a resistance caused
by ducts, dampers, or other components in a fan system.
The fan rotor receives energy from a rotating shaft and transmits it to the air.

Industrial Fans

Industrial fans and blowers are machines whose primary function is to provide
a large flow of air or gas to various processes of many industries.
This is achieved by rotating a number of blades, connected to a hub and shaft
and driven by a motor or turbine.

UNIT II

FANS AND BLOWERS

Types of Fans
Fans are divided into two general categories:
Centrifugal flow
In centrifugal flow, airflow changes direction twice once when entering and
secondly, while leaving (forward curved, backward curved or inclined, radial)
Axial flow
In axial flow, air enters and leaves the fan with no change in direction (propeller,
tube axial, vane axial)

Centrifugal
Flow
Axial Flow

UNIT II

FANS AND BLOWERS

Types of Blowers
Blowers can achieve much higher pressures than fans, as high as 1.20 kg/cm2.
They are also used to produce negative pressures for industrial vacuum systems.
Major types of blowers are:
Centrifugal Blowers
Centrifugal blowers look more like centrifugal pumps compared to fans.
In multi-stage blowers, air is accelerated as it passes through each impeller. In
a single-stage blower, air does not take many turns, and hence it is more
efficient.
Positive-Displacement Blowers
Positive-displacement blowers have rotors, which "trap" air and push it through
the housing.
Positive-displacement blowers provide a constant volume of air even if the
system pressure varies.

Centrifugal Blower Positive-Displacement Blower

UNIT II

FANS AND BLOWERS

System Characteristics

The term system resistance is used while referring to the static pressure. The
system resistance is the sum of static pressure losses in the system.
The system resistance varies with the square of the volume of air flowing
through the system.
System resistance increases substantially as the volume of air flowing through
the system increases; square of air flow. Conversely, resistance decreases as
flow decreases.

System Characteristics

UNIT II

FANS AND BLOWERS

Fan Characteristics

The fan curve is a performance curve for the particular fan under a specific
set of conditions. The fan curve is a graphical representation of a number of
interrelated parameters.
Typically, a curve will be developed for a given set of conditions usually
including fan volume, system static pressure, fan speed and brake
horsepower required to drive the fan under the stated conditions.

UNIT II

FANS AND BLOWERS

Fan Laws
The fans operate under a predictable set of laws concerning speed, power and
pressure. A change in speed (rpm) of any fan will predictably change the pressure
rise and power necessary to operate it at the new RPM.

Where, Q flow; SP Static Pressure, kW Power; N speed

(RPM)

UNIT II

FANS AND BLOWERS

Fan Design and Selection Criteria

Following are some important points to remember before selecting a particular
fan:
Precise determination of air-flow and required outlet pressure
System pressure requirement
Good judgement on magnitudes of the required flow and static pressure

Fan Performance and Efficiency

Forward curved fans have large hub-to-tip ratios compared to backward curved
fans and produce lower pressure.
Radial fans can be made with different heel-to-tip ratios to produce different
pressures.
At both design and off-design points, backward-curved fans provide the most
stable operation.
Centrifugal fans are suitable for low to moderate flow at high pressures, while
axial-flow fans are suitable for low to high flows at low pressures.

UNIT II
Flow Control Strategies
Various ways to achieve a change in
flow are:
Pulley Change
Damper Controls
Variable Speed Drives
Series and Parallel Operation

FANS AND BLOWERS

Air flow Measurement

The components of air flow

management are:
Static Pressure: It is the
potential energy put into the
system by the fan.
Velocity Pressure: It is the
pressure along the line of the flow
that results from the air flowing
through the duct.
Total Pressure: Sum of Static and
Energy Saving Opportunities
Velocity pressures
Following are a few ways to save energy with respect to fan/blower usage:
Minimising demand on the fan
Minimising excess air level in combustion systems to reduce FD fan and ID fan
load
Minimising air in-leaks in the hot flue gas path to reduce the ID fan load,
especially in case of kilns, boiler plants, furnaces, etc.
In-leaks / out-leaks in air conditioning systems also have a major impact on
energy efficiency and fan power consumption and need to be minimised.

CHAPTER III
PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM

UNIT II

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM

Introduction
A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids, gases or slurries. A pump
displaces a volume of fluid by physical or mechanical action.

Major Groups of Pumps

Direct lift pumps

Displacement pumps
Velocity pumps
Buoyancy pumps
Gravity pumps

Main Purpose of Pumps

Pumps have two main purposes:
transfer of liquid from one place to
another place
circulate liquid around a system

UNIT II

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM

Types of Pumps
Pumps have a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications. They can be
classified according to their basic operating principles as:
Dynamic pumps: Dynamic pumps are characterised by their mode of
operation; a rotating impeller converts kinetic energy into pressure or velocity
that is needed to pump the fluid.

Positive-displacement pumps: In these pumps, liquid is taken from one end

and positively discharged at the other end for every revolution.

UNIT II

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM

Centrifugal Pump
The two main parts of the centrifugal pump are:
The impeller, which is the only moving part, is attached to a shaft and driven
by a motor. Impellers are generally made of bronze, polycarbonate, cast iron,
stainless steel as well as other materials.
The diffuser (also called volute) houses the impeller and captures and directs
the water off the impeller.

Working

Water enters the centre (eye) of the impeller

and exits the impeller with the help of
centrifugal force.
As water leaves the eye of the impeller, a
low-pressure area is created, causing more
water to flow into the eye.
Velocity is developed as the water flows
through the impeller spinning at high speed.

UNIT II

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM

System Characteristics
In a pumping system, the objective, in most cases, is either to transfer a liquid
from a source to a required destination, e.g. Filling a high level reservoir or to
circulate liquid around a system.
Pressure is needed to make the liquid flow at the required rate and this must
overcome head losses' in the system.
Losses are of two types:
Static Head: The static head is simply the difference in the height of the
supply and destination reservoirs
Friction Head: The friction head (sometimes called dynamic head loss) is the
friction loss on the liquid being moved, in pipes, valves and equipment in the
system.

UNIT II

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM

Factors Affecting Pump Performance

Factors which affect the performance of the pump are:
Matching Pump and System Head-flow Characteristics
Effect of Over Sizing the Pump
Energy Loss in Throttling

Efficient Pumping System Operation

To understand a pumping system, one must realise that all of its components are
interdependent. While examining or designing a pump system, the process
demands must be established first and the most energy efficient solution should
be introduced. Following points would be helpful:
Target the end-use
Good water conservation measures
Optimise flow requirements

UNIT II

PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM

Flow Control Strategies

Different strategies to control flow are:
Pump Control by Varying Speed
Pumps in Parallel Switched to Meet
Demand
Stop/Start Control
Flow Control Valve
By-pass Control

Steps for Energy Efficiency in Pumping System

Following are a few steps towards achieving energy efficiency in pumps:
Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like pressure gauges, flow
meters.
Operate pumps near the best efficiency point
Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced control of
multiple units
Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures
In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation of pumps to
avoid throttling
Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN
ELECTRICAL UTILITIES
UNIT III

CHAPTER I
COOLING TOWER

UNIT III

COOLING TOWER

Introduction
The primary task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They
represent a relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low-grade
heat from cooling water.

Cooling Tower Types

Cooling towers fall into two main categories:
Natural draft: Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to
introduce air through the media. These types of towers are used only by
utility power stations.

Mechanical draft: Mechanical draft towers utilise large fans to force or suck
air through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill surfaces,
which helps to increase the contact time between the water and the air - this
helps to maximise heat transfer between the two.

UNIT III

COOLING TOWER

Components of a Cooling Tower

The

basic components of an evaporative tower are as follows:

Frame and casing
Fill
Cold water basin
Drift eliminators
Air inlet
Louvers
Nozzles
Fans

Tower Materials
Following are a few of the materials used in the construction of cooling towers:
Galvanized Steel
Stainless steel
Concrete
Glass Fibre

UNIT III

COOLING TOWER

Performance Parameters

Range is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet
temperature.

Approach is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water
temperature and the ambient wet bulb temperature.

Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the

ideal range, i.e., difference between cooling water inlet temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is = Range / (Range +
Approach).

Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hour, given as a product of

the mass flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.

Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty.

UNIT III

COOLING TOWER

Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Performance

Capacity
Range

Wet Bulb Temperature

Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in the performance of

evaporative water cooling equipment.
It is a controlling factor from the aspect of the minimum cold water
temperature to which water can be cooled by the evaporative method.
Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling tower
determines the operating temperature levels throughout the plant, process,
or system.

Range, Flow and Heat Load

Range is a direct function of the quantity of water circulated and the heat load.
Increasing the range as a result of added heat load does require an increase in
the tower size.
If the cold water temperature is not changed and the range is increased with a
higher hot water temperature, the driving force between the wet bulb
temperature of the air entering the tower and the hot water temperature is
increased, the higher level heat is economical to dissipate.

UNIT III

COOLING TOWER

Choosing a Cooling Tower

The counter-flow and cross flows are two basic designs of cooling towers
based on the fundamentals of heat exchange.
Cross-flow cooling towers are provided with splash fill of concrete, wood or
perforated PVC.
Counter-flow cooling towers are provided with both film fill and splash fill.
Counter flow heat exchange is more effective as compared to cross flow or
parallel flow heat exchange.

Efficient System Operation

System efficiency can be improved by employing the following methods:
Cooling Water Treatment
Avoiding Drift Loss in the Cooling Towers
Using Cooling Tower Fans
Performance Assessment of Cooling Towers

UNIT III

COOLING TOWER

Flow Control Strategies

Control of tower air flow can be done by varying methods:

Starting and stopping (On-off) of fans

Use of two or three-speed fan motors

Use of automatically adjustable pitch fans

Use of variable speed fans.

Energy Saving Opportunities in Cooling Towers

Following are a few tips on saving energy while operating Cooling Towers:

Follow the manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers

and relocate or modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust.

Optimise cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.

Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.

Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan
balance.

CHAPTER II
LIGHTING SYSTEM

UNIT III

LIGHTING SYSTEM

Introduction

Lighting is an essential service in all the industries.

Innovation and continuous improvement in the field of lighting, has given rise
to tremendous energy saving opportunities in this area.
Lighting is an area which provides a major scope to achieve energy efficiency
at the design stage, by the incorporation of modern energy efficient lamps,
luminaries and gears, apart from good operational practices.

Types of Lamps

Incandescent Lamps
Reflector Lamps
Gas Discharge Lamps

UNIT III

LIGHTING SYSTEM

Other Lighting Equipment

Luminaire: The luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or

transforms the light emitted from one or more lamps. Luminaires include
all the parts necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps, except the
lamps themselves.

Ballast: A current limiting device, to counter the negative resistance

characteristics of any discharge lamp. In case of fluorescent lamps, it aids
the initial voltage build up, required for starting.

Ignitors: These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and
Sodium vapour lamps.

Lighting Terminology

Illuminance: This is the quotient of the luminous flux incident on an element

of the surface at a point of surface containing the point, by the area of that
element.
Lux (lx): This is the illuminance produced by a
luminous flux of one lumen, uniformly distributed over a
surface area of one square metre. One lux is equal to
one lumen per square metre.

UNIT III

LIGHTING SYSTEM

Methodology of Lighting System Energy Efficiency Study

A step-by-step approach for assessing the energy efficiency of the lighting
system is as stated:
Inventorise the lighting system elements and transformers in the facility.
With the aid of a lux meter, measure and document the lux levels at various
plant locations at the working level, as day time lux and night time lux values
alongside the number of lamps ON during measurement.
With the aid of a portable load analyser, measure and document the voltage,
current, power factor and power consumption at various input points.
Compare the measured lux values with standard values as reference and
identify locations as under lit and over lit areas.
Collect and analyse the failure rates of lamps, ballasts and the actual life
expectancy levels from past data.
Bring about improvements after proper assessment.

UNIT III

LIGHTING SYSTEM

Some Good Practices in Lighting

Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in Place of Incandescent

Lamps

Installation of Metal Halide Lamps in Place of Mercury/Sodium Vapour Lamps

Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) Lamps for Applications

where Colour Rendering is not Critical

Installation of LED Panel Indicator Lamps in Place of Filament Lamps

Optimum usage of day lighting

CHAPTER III
DG SET SYSTEMS

UNIT III

DG SET SYSTEMS

Introduction

The Diesel engine is a prime mover, which drives an alternator to produce

electrical energy.
In the diesel engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed to a
high ratio (14:1 to 25:1). During this compression, the air is heated to a
temperature of 700 9000C.
A metered quantity of diesel fuel is then injected into the cylinder, which
ignites spontaneously because of the high temperature. Hence, the diesel
engine is also known as the compression ignition (CI) engine.

Classification of Diesel Generating Sets

Diesel generating (DG) sets can be classified according to cycle types as:
Two stroke
Four Stroke
A bulk of the CI engines use the four-stroke cycle.

UNIT III

The Four Stroke Diesel Engine

The

4 stroke operations in a diesel engine are:

Induction stroke
Compression stroke
Ignition and power stroke
Exhaust stroke

DG SET SYSTEMS

UNIT III

DG SET SYSTEMS

The DG Set as a System

A diesel generating set should be considered as a system since its successful
operation depends on the well-matched performance of the following
components:
The diesel engine and its accessories
The ac generator
The control systems and switchgear.
The foundation and power house civil works
The connected load with its own components like heating, motor drives,
lighting etc.
It is necessary to select components with the highest efficiency and operate
them at their optimum efficiency levels to conserve energy in this system.

Selection Considerations

To make a decision on the type of engine which is most

suitable for a specific application, several factors need
to be considered. The two most important factors are:

Power of the engine: The power requirement is

determined by the maximum load.

Speed of the engine: Speed is measured at the

output shaft and given in revolutions per minute
(RPM).

UNIT III

DG SET SYSTEMS

Diesel Generator Captive Power Plants

Diesel engine power plants are most frequently used in small power (captive
non-utility) systems. The main reason for their extensive use is the higher
efficiency of the diesel engines compared to gas turbines and small steam
turbines in the output range considered.

Advantages of adopting Diesel Power Plants

Low installation cost

Short delivery and installation periods
Higher efficiency (as high as 43 -45 %)
More efficient plant performance under part loads
Suitable for different types of fuels such as low sulphur heavy stock and
heavy fuel oil in case of large capacities.
Minimum cooling water requirements

UNIT III

DG SET SYSTEMS

Selection and Installation Factors

Sizing of a Genset
High Speed Engine or Slow/Medium Speed Engine
Capacity Combinations
Air Cooling Vs. Water Cooling
Safety Features
Parallel Operation with Grid
Site Condition Effects on Performance Derating
Unbalanced Load Effects

Operational Factors

Load Pattern and DG Set Capacity

Sequencing of Loads
Load Pattern
Load Characteristics

Genset

UNIT III

DG SET SYSTEMS

Load Characteristics
Some of the load characteristics influence the efficient use of a D.G.set. These
characteristics are entirely load dependent and cannot be controlled by the
D.G.set. Some of these characteristics are:
Unbalanced Load: Unbalanced loads on the A.C. generator lead to an
unbalanced set of voltages and additional heating in the A.C. generator.
Transient Loading: On many occasions, to contain the transient voltage
dip arising due to the transient load application, a specially designed
generator may have to be selected.
Special Loads: Special loads like the rectifier loads, welding loads, furnace
loads need an application check.

Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets

Routine energy efficiency assessment of DG sets on the shop floor involves the
following typical steps:
Ensure reliability of all instruments used for trial.
Collect technical literature, characteristics, and specifications of the plant.
Conduct a 2 hour trial on the DG set, ensuring a steady load.
The fuel oil/diesel analysis is referred to from an oil company data.
Analysis of trial data.

UNIT III

DG SET SYSTEMS

Energy Saving Measures for DG Sets

Following are a few energy saving measures for DG sets:
Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free air
at the intake (use of air washers for large sets, in case of dry, hot weather,
can be considered).
Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturers'
guidelines/oil company data.
Improve air filtration.
Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.
Ensure compliance with the maintenance checklist.

CHAPTER IV
ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

UNIT III

ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Maximum Demand Controllers

High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in

addition to the usual charge for the number of units consumed.
This charge is usually based on the highest amount of power used during
some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month.
The Maximum Demand Controller is a device designed to meet the need of
industries conscious of the value of load management. An alarm is sounded
when demand approaches a preset value.

UNIT III

ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Automatic Power Factor Controllers

Various types of automatic power factor controls are available with relay /
microprocessor logic. Two of the most common controls are:
Voltage Control: Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence
when the switched capacitors are applied at a point where the circuit voltage
decreases as circuit load increases.
Kilovar Control: Kilovar sensitive controls are used at locations where the
voltage level is closely regulated and not available as a control variable.

Energy Efficient Motors

Energy-efficient electric motors reduce energy losses through an improved
design, better material, and improved manufacturing techniques. Improvement
in motor efficiency is possible from reducing the Watt losses. Following are a few
ways to do that:
Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current losses.
Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross sectional area of
stator windings.
Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement .

UNIT III

ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Soft Starter

When starting, an AC Induction motor develops more torque than is required

at full speed.
This stress is transferred to the mechanical transmission system resulting in
excessive wear and the premature failure of chains, belts, gears, mechanical
seals, etc.
The soft starter provides a reliable and economical solution to these
problems by delivering a controlled release of power to the motor, thereby
providing smooth acceleration and deceleration.

Advantages of Soft Start

Less mechanical stress

Improved power factor
Lower maximum demand
Less mechanical maintenance

UNIT III

ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Speed Control of Induction Motors

The induction motor is the workhorse of the industry. It is cheap rugged and
provides high power to weight ratio.
On account of high cost-implications and limitations of the D.C. System,
induction motors are preferred for variable speed applications, the speed of
which can be varied by changing the supply frequency.

The Variable Frequency Drive

The rotational speed of an AC induction motor depends

on the number of poles in that stator and the
frequency of the applied AC power.
Although the number of poles in an induction motor
cannot be altered easily, variable speed can be
achieved through a variation in the frequency.

Eddy Current Drives

This method employs an eddy-current clutch to vary the output speed. The clutch
consists of a primary member coupled to the shaft of the motor and a freely
revolving secondary member coupled to the load shaft.

UNIT III

ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Energy Efficient Transformers

The iron loss of any transformer depends on the type of core used in the
transformer.
The expected reduction in energy loss over conventional (Si Fe core)
transformers is roughly around 70%, which is quite significant.
By using an amorphous core with unique physical and magnetic properties,
these new types of transformers have increased efficiencies even at low loads
- 98.5% efficiency at 35% load.

Electronic Ballast

In an electric circuit, the ballast acts as a stabiliser.

Since the fluorescent lamps cannot produce light by direct connection to the
power source, they need an ancillary circuit and device to get started and
remain illuminated. The auxillary circuit housed in a casing is known as the
ballast.

UNIT III

ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Energy Efficient Lighting Controls

Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy-linked control can be achieved using infra-red,
acoustic, ultrasonic or microwave sensors, which detect
either movement or noise in room spaces.
These sensors switch lighting on when occupancy is
detected, and off again after a set time period, when no
occupancy movements are detected.
Timed Based Control
Timed-turn off switches are the least expensive type of automatic lighting
control.
In some cases, their low cost and ease of installation makes it desirable to
use them where more efficient controls would be too expensive.
Daylight Linked Control
Photoelectric cells can be used either simply to switch lighting on and off, or
for dimming.
By using an internally mounted photoelectric dimming control system, it is
possible to ensure that the sum of daylight and electric lighting always
reaches the design level by sensing the total light in the controlled area and
adjusting the output of the electric lighting accordingly.