Entropy

Cengel & Boles,

Chapter 6

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Entropy
From the 1st Carnot principle:

th th ,rev
Wnet ,out
QH

QL
QH

QL
QH

TL
TH

TL
TH

TL
TH

QTLL QTHH
QH
TH

QL
TL

this is valid for two thermal reservoirs

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The Clausius Inequality

For a system undergoing a cycle and
communicating with N thermal
reservoirs, it can be shown that
N

Qi
0

i 1 Ti

This can be further generalized into

the Clausius Inequality:
Q
T 0

where Q is the heat transfer at a

particular location along the system
boundary during a portion of the cycle
and T is the absolute temperature at that
location. This is called a cyclic integral.
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The Clausius
Inequality, cont.
If the cycle is internally reversible,
then
Q
T

int
rev

What does this mean? Consider:

dV 0, dT 0, dP 0
(V , T , P are properties)

W 0, Q 0
(W , Q are path - dependent functions)

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New Property: Entropy

Therefore, the quantity Q/T is a
property of the system in differential
form when the integration is
performed along an internally
reversible path. This property is
known as entropy (S) :
Q
dS

int
rev

, or

S S 2 S1

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int
rev

New Property: Entropy

This integral defines a new property of the
system called entropy (S):

S 2 S1

int
rev

entropy is an extensive property with units of

kJ/K; specific entropy is defined by s = S/m,
with units of kJ/kg-K
the integration will only yield entropy change
when carried out along an int. rev. path
like enthalpy, entropy is a convenient and useful
property that has been introduced without
physical motivation; its utility will be discovered
as we learn more about its characteristics

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Entropy Change and

Heat Transfer

S 2 S1

int
rev

Suppose we have a closed system

undergoing an internally reversible
process with heat transfer
if heat is added (Q>0), then S2>S1 or
entropy increases
if heat is removed (Q<0), then S2<S1
or entropy decreases
if system is adiabatic (Q=0), then
S2=S1 or entropy is constant (isentropic)

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Entropy Change and

Heat Transfer, cont.
Entropy equation can be rearranged:

Q int
rev

TdS

or Qint
rev

TdS m Tds
1

when temperature is plotted against

entropy, the area under a process path is
equal to the heat transfer when the
process is internally reversible.

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Increase in Entropy
Principle
Consider a cycle
consisting of an
irreversible process
followed by a
reversible one:

or

Q
T 0 (Clausius inequality)
2 Q
1 Q
1 T irrev 2 T int 0
rev

S1 S2 0
irrev

S2 S1

irrev

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Increase in Entropy
Principle, cont.
The inequality can be turned into an
equality by considering the extra
contribution to the entropy change as
entropy generated by the
irreversibilities of the process:
2 Q
S2 S1

Sgen

where
Sgen 0 for an irreversible process
Sgen 0 for a reversible process
Sgen 0 is an impossible process
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10

Increase in Entropy
Principle, cont.
The increase in entropy principle
states that an isolated system (or an
adiabatic closed system) will always
experience an increase in entropy
since there can be no heat transfer,
i.e.,

S2 S1 isolated

Sgen 0

However, this principle does not

preclude an entropy decrease, which
may occur for a system that loses
heat (Q < 0)
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11

Isentropic Processes
A process is isentropic if S (or s) is a
constant, i.e.,

s2 s1

this corresponds to best performance

(reversible) in the absence of heat
transfer since irreversibilities are zero.
many engineering devices such as
pumps, turbines, nozzles, and diffusers
are essentially adiabatic, so they
perform best when isentropic.
note that a reversible adiabatic process
must be isentropic, but an isentropic
process is not necessarily a reversible
adiabatic process.
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12

The T-s Diagram

A T-s diagram displays the phases of a
substance in much the same way as a
P-v or T-v diagram:

Zero entropy is defined at sf(T = 0.01C)

for H2O, sf(T = -40C) for R-134a, and
s(T = 0K) for ideal gases

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13

The Tds Relations

Consider a closed, stationary system
containing a simple compressible
substance undergoing an int. rev.
process:
Q W int
dU
rev
where Q TdS

W PdV
substituting, we obtain:

TdS dU PdV
Tds du Pdv
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14

The Tds Equations, cont.

Recalling H = U + PV, then
dU dH PdV VdP
substituting,

TdS dH VdP
Tds dh vdP
these are known as the Tds relations,
which allow one to evaluate entropy in
terms of more familiar quantities; the
equations are also valid for irreversible
processes because they involve only
properties and so are path-independent.
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15

Calculating Entropy
Change
From Tds relations,
Tds du Pdv ( dh vdP )
du Pdv
ds

T
T
2 du
2 Pdv
s2 s1

, and
1 T
1
T
2 dh
2 vdP
s2 s1

1 T
1
T
these equations are used to evaluate
entropy for H2O and R-134a in the text
tables A-4 through A-13
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16

Entropy Change for

Ideal Gases
For ideal gases,
du Cv dT , dh C p dT , Pv RT
s2 s1

T2

T1

v2 RT dv
Cv dT

v
1
T
v T

T2

T1

v2
Cv dT

R ln
T
v1

similarly,
s2 s1

T2

T1

C p dT
P
R ln 2
T
P1

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17

Variable Specific Heats

(Exact Analysis)
Define absolute entropy:
s
o

C p dT
T

this is tabulated as a function of T in the

ideal gas tables, A-17 through A-25
thus,

T2

T1

C p dT
T

s2o s1o , and so

P2

s2 s1 s s R ln
P1
o
2

o
1

in molar form :
P2

s2 s1 s s Ru ln
P1
o
2

o
1

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18

Constant Specific Heats

(Approximate Analysis)
If Cv, Cp constant, then
T2
s2 s1 Cv ,av ln
T1
T2
s2 s1 C p ,av ln
T1

v2
R ln

v1
P2
R ln

P1

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19

Entropy Change for

Incompressible Substances
For incompressible substances (i.e.,
liquids and solids), v = constant and
Cv = Cp = C
CdT
s2 s1
T1
T
T2
Cav ln
T1
T2

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20

Isentropic Processes for

Ideal Gases
Recall for an ideal gas:
P2

s2 s1 s s R ln
P1
o
2

o
1

If process is isentropic,
P2
0
s s R ln
P1
o
2

o
1

Since adiabatic, isentropic processes

are reversible and yield the best
performance, solving this equation is
important (e.g., finding T2 and h2)
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21

Variable Specific Heats

(Exact Isentropic Analysis)
i) if T1, P1, and P2 are known, then T2
can be found from the ideal gas
tables and
P2

s s R ln
P1
o
2

o
1

ii) if T1, P1, and T2 are known, then P2

can be found from
s2o s1o

P2 P1 exp
R

P2 exp( s2o / R ) f (T2 )

or

o
P1 exp( s1 / R )
f (T1 )

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22

Relative Pressure, Pr
The quantity exp(so/R) is tabulated in
the ideal gas tables as a function of
temperature - it is called the relative
pressure, Pr
If the pressure ratio P2/P1 is known,
then Pr is useful in finding the
isentropic process by setting
P2
Pr 2

Pr1
P1

s const

The relative pressure values have no physical

significance - they are only used as a shortcut
in determining an isentropic process from the
ideal gas tables

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23

Relative Volume, vr
From the ideal gas law,
v2 RT2

v1 P2

P1
T /P
f (T2 )
2 r 2
T1 / Pr1
f (T1 )
RT1

The quantity T/Pr is also tabulated in

the ideal gas tables and is known as the
relative volume, vr ; if the specific
volume ratio is known, then vr is useful
in finding the isentropic process by
setting
v r 2 v2

vr1 v1

s const

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24

Constant Specific Heats

(Approx. Isentropic Analysis)
Recall:

T2
s2 s1 Cv ,av ln
T1

v2
R ln

v1

T2
s2 s1 C p ,av ln
T1

P2
R ln

P1

with k = Cp/Cv and Cp = Cv + R , the

following relations result:
T2 P2

T1 P1

k 1
k

T2 v1

T1 v2

k 1

P2 v1

P1 v2

note that Pvk = constant for isentropic

processes; thus, these processes are
polytropic where n = k
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25

Reversible Steady-Flow
Work
Recall relation between heat transfer
and entropy for an int. rev. process:
Qint
rev

qrev

TdS
1

, or

Tds
1

dh vdP
2

h2 h1 vdP
1

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26

Reversible Steady-Flow
Work, cont.
From CV energy balance,
q w h2 h1 12 V22 V12 g ( z2 z1 )
or

w q h1 h2 12 V12 V22 g ( z1 z2 )

for a reversible process,

2

wrev h2 h1 vdP h1 h2
1
2

2
1

V22 g ( z1 z2 )

vdP 12 V12 V22 g ( z1 z2 )

2

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27

Reversible Steady-Flow
Work, cont.
2

wrev vdP
1

1
2

V22 g ( z1 z2 )

2
1

Note that if wrev = 0, we have the simple

form of the Bernoulli equation
For turbines, compressors, and pumps
with negligible KE, PE effects:
2

wrev vdP
1

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28

Special Cases of
Reversible Work
1) Pumps - fluid is incompressible
(i.e., liquid) so v = constant:
wrev v ( P2 P1 )

2) Ideal gas (Pv = RT) compressor:

wrev

RT

dP
P

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29

Special Cases of
Reversible Work, cont.
3) Polytropic compressor

Pv n constant
substituting into reversible work
equation and integrating yields:

wrev

n
P2v2 P1v1

n 1
P2

P1v1 ln
P1

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for n 1
for n 1

30

Special Cases of
Reversible Work, cont.
4) Ideal gas and polytropic
compressor:
wrev

nR
T2 T1

n 1
P2

RT1 ln
P1

for n 1
for n 1

4) Ideal gas and isothermal

compressor:
wrev

P2

RT ln
P1

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31

Isentropic Efficiencies
of Steady-Flow Devices
Isentropic Efficiency is a performance measure of an adiabatic
device that compares an actual
process to an isentropic process,
both having the same exit pressure
1) Turbines:
actual work per unit mass
T
isentropic work per unit mass
w
a
ws

h1 h2 a
if KE , PE , Q cv 0
h1 h2 s

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32

Isentropic Efficiencies,
cont.
2) Compressors:
isentropic work per unit mass
C
actual work per unit mass
w
s
wa
h2 s h1

if KE , PE , Q cv 0
h2 a h1

3) Pumps:
isentropic work per unit mass
actual work per unit mass
w
w
s rev
wa
wa

v ( P2 P1 )
if KE , PE , Q cv 0
h2 a h1

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33

Isentropic Efficiencies,
cont.
4) Nozzles:
N

actual exit KE per unit mass

isentropic exit KE per unit mass

V22a / 2
2
V2 s / 2

h1 h2 a
if V22 V12 , PE , Q cv 0
h1 h2 s

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34

Entropy Balance for

Closed Systems
From the increase in entropy
principle,
S2 S1

Q
Sgen
T

If temperature is constant where heat

transfer takes place, then
N

Qk
S2 S1
Sgen
k 1 Tk

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35

Entropy Balance for

Control Volumes
It can also be shown that the
following entropy balance applies to
steady-flow control volumes with
single-inlet, single-exit:
1
s2 s1
m

Q k

Sgen

k 1 Tk

where
S is the entropy generation rate (kW/K)
gen

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36