Four Basic Types Of

Measurement:
Categorizing
Nominal

Ranking
Ordinal

Determination of the size interval

Interval

Determination of the size of ratios

Ratio

CENTRAL TENDENCY AND

VARIABILITY (NOMINAL SCALES)
Information:guessing game (ESP
experiments)
Background:
- Transmission of signals
- How much is lost in channel?
- How to measure the information transmitted in a
message?

CENTRAL TENDENCY AND

VARIABILITY (NOMINAL SCALES)
One word - no guesses
Two words - one guess
Four words - two guesses
Eight words - three guesses
-# of guesses - power to which two needs to be
raised to define # of words, or log to base 2 of #
of alternatives
-Number of guesses called # of bits (binary
units)

Varyingamountsofinformation

Nominal scales:
Name of category does not imply rank,
even if it is a number.

Nominal Scales

Assignment to categories according to a rule

e. g., manic - depressive
paranoid - schizophrenic
involutional - melancholic

Starting point of science

Chemists - elements
Physicists - atoms and sub-atomic particles
Lineaus - biological categories
Freud - infantile sexuality - neurotic disorders

Modern Psychology

does it have reliable units of analysis?

Reflexes?
short term memory?
behavior disorders?

Frequency Distributions
(Nominally Scaled Data)
Bar graph - histogram
Mode - summary statistic
mode

Ordinal scales:

- Numbers convey relative magnitude.

rank of one usually assigned to highest
magnitude
cant add or subtract ranks, e. g., ranks of
weight
Rank:
1
2
3
4
5

Weight (lbs.)
200
20
3
2
.5

OrdinalScales
SummaryStatistics:
CentralTendency:Median(asmany
observationsabovemedianasbelow
it)
Variability:Range(difference
betweenthesmallestandhighest
values)

 Interval scales:
Size of difference is known
Units are of equal size
Ratio scales:
True zero point exists
Multiplication or division possible

Magnitude of Psychological Judgments

as a Function of Physical Intensity

CALCULATING THE MEAN

Given the raw data: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
X i
Mean= X= N

2 +4 +6 +8 +10
=
5

30
=
=6
5

ArithmeticMean=CenterofGravity

SymmetricalDistributions

AsymmetricalDistributions

SymmetricalDistributions

Skewed(Asymmetrical)
Distrubutions

MeasuresofCentralTendencyin
aPositivelySkewedDistribution

BinomialDistributions

CALCULATING DEVIATIONS
FROM THE MEAN
Given the raw data: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
=

Mean Deviation

Mean Absolute Deviation =

Variance

Standard Deviation

=
=

XXi
=0
N

X X i

N
4

XXi
N

X X i
2
==
N

40

MEASURING WITH THE

STANDARD DEVIATION:
Z-SCORES
Given the raw data: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
if X

Z2

Z4

CORRELATION
z x C z y
i

=rxy(

x y xy

NormalDistribution

r=+1.0

r=1.0

Zy

Zy

Zx

Zx
or

ExampleofPositiveCorrelation

ExamplesofPositive,Negative
andMinimalCorrelation

Relationship Between r and

Predicted Variance
2

Example: measures of rainfall and corn

height
Suppose that r = 0.8. This means that
64% (0.8)2 of the variance of the height
of corn height is accounted for by
knowledge of how much rain fell.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

Reliability: To what extent will a test give
the same set of results over repeated
measurements?

Validity: To what extent does a test

measures what it purports to measure?

Validity and reliability are measured as

correlation coefficients.

Measuring reliability:
Odd-even or split-half method: To what extent does
one half of the test agree with the items of the second
half of the test?
Test-retest: Results of test is given on two different
occasions are compared. Assumes that there are no
practice effects
Alternative form: Where there is a practice effect, an
alternative form of the original test is given and the
results are compared.
A reliable test may not be valid.
A valid test must be reliable may not be valid.
A valid test must be reliable.

HERITABILITY
Heritability: The proportion of variance of a
phenotype that is attributable to genetic variance.
Phenotype: Observable trait
Genotype: What is transmitted from generation to
generation
What % of a phenotype is genetic?
Hertiability is calculated by determining
phenotypic variance and the magnitudes of its two
components (genetic and environmental variance)

CalculationofHeritability
Heritability: The proportion of variance of a
phenotype that is attributable to genetic variance.

2p=2g+2e
2G + 2E = 1
2P 2P
2

2
G
h =
Heritability=
2P

(h2>0<1)

WhichContributesMoretoArea?
WidthorLength

Heritability

HERITABILITY DOES NOT

APPLY TO INDIVIDUALS!
Example: h2 of IQ = 0.6. This does not
mean that 60% of an individuals IQ is genetic
and 40% is environmental.

Heritability

HeritabilityisSpecifictothe
PopulationinwhichitsMeasured

2G

Minimum & maximum

values
of
__
2
h
=
2
(h
>0<1)
h (coefficient of heritability):
2P

h = 0.00: None of the

observed values of phenotype is
due to genes (all of it is due to
environmental differences).
h =1.00:
All
of
variance
is
due

Examples Of Heritability Coefficients:

Piebald Holstein Cow;

h2 = .95 (color)
h2 = .3 (milk production)

Pigs:

h = .55 (body fat)

2
h = .15 (litter size)
2

h2 is specific to the environment and

population studied.

HERITABILITY ESTIMATES ARE

SPECIFIC TO POPULATIONS AND
ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH THEY ARE
MEASURED!
Example 1: Heritability of skin color in
Norway and the United States. Its higher in
the United States. Why? Because, in Norway
the environment contributes more to
phenotypic variation than family background.
In the United States family background
contributes more to variation in skin color
then the environment.

HERITABILITY ESTIMATES ARE SPECIFIC

TO POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTS
IN WHICH THEY ARE MEASURED!

Example 2: Heritability of
Tuberculosis. Decreased during the 20th

century because of changes in the environment.

Up to and during the 19th century, everyone who

How to Reduce h2
1.
2.

Interbreed - this reduces 2g

Increase 2e.

How to Increase h2
1.
2.
3.
4.

outcrossing - new genes

mutation - new genes
select for rare characteristics

2
reduce .