SCULPTURE

and

ARCHITECTU
RE

Sculpture
is three-dimensional art. Traditionally, there are two main
methods: carving material such as wood or stone, and modeling
forms by adding pieces of material such as clay.
2 TYPES OF SCULPTURE
1. Subtractive
2. Additive

Evolution of Sculpture
Prehistoric Sculpture
Sculpture begins in the Stone Age. Exactly when, we don't know.
The earliest known examples are the two primitive stone effigies
known asThe Venus of Berekhat RamandThe Venus of TanTan.The Venus of Berekhat Ram(dating from c.230,000 BCE or
earlier) is a basaltic figurine made during the Acheulian Period,
which was discovered on the Golan Heights.The Venus of TanTan(c.200,000 BCE or earlier) is a quartzite figurine from the same
period.
Mesolithic Sculpture (c.10,000-4,000 BCE)
Mesolithic artwitnessed more bas-reliefs and free standing
sculpture such as the anthropomorphic figurines unearthed in
Nevali Cori andGobekliTepenear Urfa in eastern Turkey, and the
statues ofLepenskiVir(eg. The Fish God) in Serbia. It also
witnessed the creation of theShigir Idol(7,500 BCE) - the world's
oldest surviving wood carving - found near Sverdlovsk in Russia.
Arguably the greatest Mesolithic work of art is the
terracotta sculpturefrom Romania, known as TheThinker of
Cernavoda, an unmistakable image of cognitive thought.

 Neolithic Sculpture (c.4,000-2,000 BCE)

Neolithic artis noted above all for its pottery, but it also featured
free standing sculpture and bronze statuettes - in particular from
the
Indus
ValleyCivilization,
the
North
Caucasus
and
pre-Columbian artin the Americas. The most spectacular form of
Neolithic
art
wasEgyptian pyramid architecturewhose
burial
chambers led to an increased demand for various types of reliefs as
well as portable statues and statuettes.
Eastern Mediterranean Sculpture (c.2000-1100 BCE)
Following the flowering of architecture and other arts in Egypt, the
Levant also witnessed the rise of the Minoan culture on the island of
Crete, which was noted for its sculpture andmetalwork. After an
unknown catastrophe (probably earthquake) around 1500 BCE, the
Minoan civilization collapsed, and Crete was conquered by the
Myceneans from the Greek mainland, who were themselves
overcome and the city of Mycenae destroyed around 1100 BCE.

 Far Eastern Sculpture (c.1700 BCE - 1150 CE)

Chinese artduring
theShang Dynasty(c.1600-1050)
developed
along quite different lines to Western varieties. For the finest bronze
sculpture produced in China during this period, see:Sanxingdui
Bronzes(1200-1000 BCE). Famous examples of Indian and SouthEast Asian sculpture include the extraordinary reliefs at the 11th
century KandariyaMahadeva Hindu Temple (1017-29) in Madhya
Pradesh, India; and the 12th centuryAngkor Wat Khmer Temple
(1115-45) in Cambodia.
Sculpture of Classical Antiquity (c.1100-100 BCE)
Due to the cultural stagnation of the Greek "Dark Ages" (1100-900
BCE) and the predominance of pottery during the Geometric Period
(900-700 BCE), Greek sculpture did not really appear until the
Daedalicor Oriental-Style Period around 650 BCE. Thereafter it
developed according to the traditional chronology of Greek art
duringclassical antiquity, as follows: Archaic Period (c.650-500
BCE); Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE); and Hellenistic Period
(c.323-100 BCE).

 Archaic Greek Sculpture (c.600-500 BCE)

The Archaic period was a time of slow but continuous
experimentation; the most prized form ofArchaic Greek sculpture
was the kouros (pl.kouroi), or standing male nude.

Classical
Greek
Sculpture
(c.500-323
BCE)
Divided into theEarly ClassicalPeriod,High ClassicalPeriod and
Late ClassicalPeriod, this was the high point of Greek creativity. In
the plastic arts, famous sculptors likePolykleitos(5th century
BCE),Myron(Active 480-444 BCE), andPhidias(c.488-431 BCE)
(see his work at theParthenon) achieved a level of realism further developed by later artists such asCallimachus(Active 432408 BCE),Skopas(Active 395-350 BCE),Lysippos(c.395-305
BCE),Praxiteles(Active 375-335 BCE), andLeochares(Active 340320 BCE) - which would remain unsurpassed until the Italian
Renaissance.


World's
Greatest
Clay
Sculpture
TheTerracotta Army(dating to 246-208 BCE), a huge collection of
clay warriors and horses, was sculpted in Shaanxi province,
China, under the orders of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Thousands
of figures remain buried at the site.
Roman Sculpture (c.200 BCE - c.200 CE)
Until about 27 BCE, despite the influence of earlier Etruscan
sculptors - noted for their "joi de vivre" -Roman sculpturewas
unidealized and realistic; thereafter it became sternly heroic, and
quite mediocre. It was designed above all to express the majesty
and power of Roman rule, thus aside from a number of
magnificent historical reliefs (eg. the spiral bas-relief of
Trajan's Column) and rare monuments (eg. theAraPacisAugustae
), Roman sculptors were largely employed in the production of
portrait bustsof the Emperors and other dignitaries. In short, no
big deal.

 Byzantine Sculpture (330-1450 CE)

Up until the fourth century,early Christian sculpturehad been
almost exclusively tomb reliefs for sarcophagi in Rome. When the
Roman Empire divided into East and West, the Eastern capital was
located in Constantinople. The art of the Eastern Roman Empire,
based in Byzantium, was almost entirely religious, but, aside from
some shallow ivory reliefs and goldsmithing, the Eastern Orthodox
brand of Christianity did not permit 3-D artworks like statues or high
reliefs.
Sculpture During The Dark Ages (c.500-800)
As the name suggests, this was a dark and quiet time for European
sculptors. The Church was weak, the Barbarians (who weren't big
into sculpture) were strong, and cities were impoverished and
uncultured.


Hellenistic
Greek
Sculpture
(c.323-27
BCE)
During this period (characterized by the spread of Greek culture
throughout the civilized world), classical realism was replaced by
greater heroicism and expressionism. Famous works of
Hellenistic Greek sculptureinclude:Dying Gaul by Epigonus;
theWinged Victory of Samothrace;Laocoon and His Sonsby
Hagesandrus, Polydorus and Athenodorus (42-20 BCE), and the
Venus de Milo.
Celtic Metal Sculpture (400-100 BCE)
Let's not forget the Celts - a series of nomadic tribes which
emerged from the Caucasus around 800 BCE, and gradually
spread westwards across Europe (600-100 BCE) as far as the
Iberian peninsula, Britain and Ireland. Although highly mobile,
and masters of blacksmithery and goldsmithery, they were too
disorganized to compete with the highly disciplined and
centralized State of Rome. Eventually wholly Romanized, at least
on the Continent, theirCeltic metalwork artincluded some of the
finest metal sculpture of the age (eg. theBroighter Boatc.100-50
BCE). They were also exceptional traders and their intricate
metalwork designs were exported and imitated throughout the
known world.

 Early Romanesque Sculpture (Carolingian, Ottonian)

(c.800-1050)
The revival ofmedieval sculpturebegan with Charlemagne I, King of
the Franks, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800. The
Carolingian empire dissolved quite quickly but Charlemagne's
patronage of the arts was a crucial first step in the revitalization of
European culture, not least because many of the Romanesque and
Gothic churches were built on the foundations of Carolingian
architecture.
Romanesque Sculpture (c.1000-1200)
In the 11th century, a more confident Christian Church began to
reassert itself. This doctrinal expansionism led to the Crusades to
free the Holy Land from the grip of Islam. The Crusaders' success
and their acquisition of Holy Relics triggered the construction of new
churches and cathedrals across Europe in the fully fledged
Romanesque style of architecture - a style known in Britain and
Ireland as "Norman" architecture. This in turn led to a huge wave of
commissions forRomanesque sculptureand stained glass.

 Gothic Sculpture (c.1150-1300)

The Church's building program stimulated the development of
new architectural techniques. These techniques came together
during the mid-late 12th century in a style which Renaissance
architects later dubbed "Gothic architecture".
Italian Renaissance Sculpture (c.1400-1600)
TheItalian Renaissancewas inspired by the "rediscovery" of, and
reverence for, the arts of Classical Antiquity, especially in the
field of architecture and sculpture.Renaissance artwas also
coloured by a strong belief in Humanism and the nobility of Man.
Early Renaissance Sculpture (1400-90)
Early Renaissance sculptors sought to improve further on Gothic
works, taking much of their inspiration from Classical Roman and
Greek sculpture. In so doing, they injected their statues with a
range of emotion and imbued them with new energy and
thought.

 High Renaissance Sculpture (c.1490-1530)

Other important sculptors of the High Renaissance include the
artist and Venetian architectJacopo Sansovino(1486-1570) and
BaccioBandinelli(1493-1560).
Northern Renaissance Sculpture (c.1400-1530)
In Northern Europe, the art of sculpture was exemplified in
particular by two awesome craftsmen who took the art of sculpting
in wood to new heights: the German limewood sculptor
TilmanRiemenschneider(1460-1531), noted for his reliefs and
freestanding wood sculpture; and the wood-carverVeitStoss(14501533) renowned for his delicate altarpieces.
Mannerist Sculpture (1530-1600)
Mannerist sculpture reflected the chaos and uncertainty of a
Europe racked by religious division and a Rome recently sacked
and occupied by mercenary French soldiers. Mannerist sculptors
introduced a new expressiveness into their works, as exemplified
by the powerfulRape of the SabinesbyGiambologna(1529-1608),
andPerseus(1545-54) byBenvenuto Cellini(1500-71).

 Baroque Sculpture (c.1600-1700)

During the later 16th century, in response to the Protestant
Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church launched its own Counter
Reformation. This propaganda campaign, designed to persuade
worshippers to return to the "true" Church, employed the full
panoply of the visual arts, including architecture, sculpture and
painting, and became associated with a grander, more dramatic
idiom known as Baroque art.
Rococo Sculpture (c.1700-1789)
Basically a French reaction against the seriousness of the
Baroque,Rococo artbegan
in
the
French
court
at
the
Palace of Versaillesbefore spreading across Europe. If Baroque
sculpture was dramatic and serious, Rococo was all frills and no
substance, although in reality it was not so much a different style
from the Baroque but rather a variation on the style brought to
fruition by Bernini and his contemporaries.

 Neoclassical Sculpture (Flourished c.1790-1830)

Neoclassical art - basically Greek art with a modern twist - was
dominated (like the Gothic era) by architecture. Neoclassical
buildings include the Pantheon (Paris), the Arc de Triomphe (Paris),
the Brandenburg Gate (Berlin), and the United States Capitol
Building. In sculpture, neoclassicism involved an emphasis on the
virtues of heroicism, duty and gravitas.
19th Century Sculpture
In many ways, the nineteenth century was an age of crisis for
sculpture. In simple terms, architectural development had largely
exhausted itself, religious patronage had declined as a result of the
French Revolution, and the general climate of "populism", began to
cause much confusion in the minds of institutional and private
patrons as to what constituted acceptable subjects (and styles) for
sculptural representation.

Pop-Art Sculpture
Chronologically, the first major post-war movement involving
sculptors, was 1960s Pop-Art, which originated in the pioneering
work ofRobert Rauschenberg(1925-2008) and Jasper Johns
(b.1930) during the 1950s.
Minimalist Sculpture
1960sMinimalismexplored the purity of ultra-simplified forms to
the point of absurdity. Minimalist sculpture can be fully appreciated
by anyone with a PhD in Fine Art
Postmodernist Contemporary Sculpture
By 1970, an increasing amount ofcontemporary artwas becoming
extremely experimental - art critics might say wacky,
incomprehensible and kitsch-like. From the 1970s onwards, this
tendency was christened "Postmodernist art".

Medium of Sculpture
Stone hard and brittle substance formed from mineral and
earth material. The finished product is granular and dull in
appearance. These are normally used in gravestones in
cemeteries. Stones include sandstone, granite, basalt, marble, and
limestone.
Jade it is a fine colorful stone, usually green, and used widely in
Ancient China. It is highly esteemed as an ornamental stone for
carving and fashion jewelry.
Ivory this comes from the main parts of tusks of elephants. It is
the hard white substance used to make carvings and billiard balls.

 Metal include any of a class of elementary substances such

as gold, silver, or copper all of which are crystalline when solid
and many of which are characterized by capacity, ductility,
conductivity and peculiar luster when freshly fractured. When
being ductile it can be transformed into fine wires or treads. Its
main quality is that it can be shaped into any directions or
formed under great pressure without breaking.

Plaster composition of lime, sand and water. Plaster is

worked as an armature of metal wires and rods in addition to
various metals and fibers. This applied on walls and ceilings and
allowed to hard and dry. The medium is used extensively for
making manikins, model molds, architectural decorations and
other indoor sculpture.
Glass it is medium that is hard, brittle, non-crystalline, more
or less transparent substances produced by fusion, usually
consisting of mutually dissolved silica and silicates and contain
soda and lime. This is to make beautiful but fragile figurines. It
can be molded in various colors and shapes.

 Clay is a natural earthly material that has the nature of

plasticity when wet, consisting essentially of hydratedsilicates of
aluminum used for making bricks and ceramics. Clay is generally
fragile so it becomes necessary to cast it in another durable
material.
Wood as a medium is easier to carve than any other mediums
available because it can be intricately carved and subjected into
a variety of treatment not possible with stone. It is lighter and
softer to carve despite having greater tensile strength than
stone; hence it can be used in long pieces without taking
breaking. Common wood used for sculpture are dapdap, white
launan, oak, walnut, mahogany, narra, and dao. They are
selected for beauty and permanence.
Terra Cotta is the tenderest of sculptural materials. Most of
oriental sculptures deals with this medium. This is used in vases,
figurines, and in small thins.

Techniques of Sculpture
1. Carving is a time-consuming and painstaking process in
which the artist subtracts, or cuts away, superfluous material
until the desired form is reached. The material is usually hard
and frequently weighty; generally, the design is compact and
is governed by the nature of the material.
2. Modeling consists of addition to, or building up of, form. The
materials used are soft and yielding and can be easily
shaped, enabling rapid execution. Clay or claylike
substances, baked to achieve increased durability, have been
used for modeling since ancient times.

Modeling in Clay
This
artist
is
creating
a
sculpture out of clay. She is
using a wooden tool specifically
designed for clay sculpting.
Working in clay can be done
using tools or the artists hands.
It is one of the oldest methods
of sculpting.

Casting

The only means of obtaining permanence for a modeled work is

to cast it in bronze or some other durable substance.
Two methods of casting are used: the cire perdue, or lost-wax
process, and sand-casting.
Casting is accomplished in two stages: First, an impression or
negative mold is formed from the originala clay model, for
instanceand second, a positive cast or reproduction is made
of the original work from the negative impression.

Molds and Casts

The four seals, top row,
were used as negative
molds to cast the positive
reproductions, bottom row.
Similarly,
in
sculpture,
artists shape a model from
clay
or
some
other
malleable substance, form
a negative mold of this
model, and pour a liquefied
casting substance such as
bronze into the hollow
mold. Once the casting
substance has hardened,
the final work is ready.

Construction and Assemblage

Although traditional techniques are still employed, much 20thcentury sculpture was created by construction and assemblage.
These methods have their origin in collage, a painting
technique devised by Pablo Picasso and the French artist
Georges Braque in 1912, in which paper and foreign materials
are pasted to a picture surface. Picasso also made threedimensional objects such as musical instruments out of paper
and scraps of diverse materials, which were termed
constructions. Examples of modern constructivist sculpture
range from the surrealistic boxes of Joseph Cornell to the junkcar and machine-part works of John Chamberlain, both
Americans. The term assemblage, which is now sometimes
used interchangeably with construction, was coined by the
French painter Jean Dubuffet to refer to his own work, which
grew out of collage.

Assemblage
by
Joseph Cornell
American artist Joseph
Cornell is best known for
his small wooden boxes
in which he assembles
often
incongruous
objects.
Suzys
Sun
(1954, North Carolina
Museum of Art), shown
here, is typical of his
work, particularly in the
feeling of nostalgia that
the work evokes through
the use of old, worn, or
found objects, such as
the seashell and the
driftwood.

Architecture
In its strictest meaning, it is the art of designing a building
and supervising its construction.
-is shelter to serve as protection of all activities of men.
Evolution of Architecture
Architecture in Prehistoric Times
Before recorded history, humans constructed earthen
mounds, stone circles, megaliths, and structures that often puzzle
modern-day archaeologists. Prehistoric architecture includes
monumental structures such as Stonehenge, cliff dwellings in the
Americas, and thatch and mud structures lost to time.
Ancient Egypt
3,050 BC to 900 BC In ancient Egypt, powerful rulers
constructed monumental pyramids, temples, and shrines. Far from
primitive, enormous structures such as the Pyramids of Giza were
feats of engineering capable of reaching great heights.

 Classical
850 BC to 476 AD From the rise of ancient Greece until the fall
of the Roman empire, great buildings were constructed according
to precise rules. The Classical Orders, which defined column styles
and entablature designs, continue to influence building design in
modern times.
Byzantine
527 to 565 AD. After Constantine moved the capital of the
Roman empire to Byzantium (now called Istanbul) in 330 AD,
Roman architecture evolved into a graceful, classically-inspired
style that used brick instead of stone, domed roofs, elaborate
mosaics, and classical forms.
Emperor Justinian (527 AD to 565 AD) led the way.
Romanesque
800 to 1200 AD As Rome spread across Europe, heavier, stocky
Romanesque architecture with rounded arches emerged. Churches
and castles of the early Medieval period were constructed with
thick walls and heavy piers.

 Gothic Architecture
1100 to 1450 AD Pointed arches, ribbed vaulting, flying
buttresses, and other innovations led to taller, more graceful
architecture. Gothic ideas gave rise to magnificient cathedrals
like Chartres and Notre Dame.
Renaissance Architecture
1400 to 1600 AD A return to classical ideas ushered an "age
of awakening" in Italy, France, and England. Andrea Palladio and
other builders looked the classical orders of ancient Greece and
Rome. Long after the Renaissance era ended, architects in the
Western world found inspiration in the beautifully proportioned
architecture of the period.
Baroque Architecture
1600 to 1830 AD In Italy, the Baroque style is reflected in
opulent and dramatic churches with irregular shapes and
extravagant ornamentation. In France, the highly ornamented
Baroque style combines with Classical restraint. Russian
aristocrats were impressed by Versailles in France, and
incorporated Baroque ideas in the building of St. Petersburg.
Elements of the elaborate Baroque style are found throughout
Europe.

Rococo Architecture
1650 to 1790 AD During the last phase of the Baroque
period, builders constructed graceful white buildings with
sweeping curves. These Rococo buildings are elegantly
decorated with scrolls, vines, shell-shapes, and delicate
geometric patterns.
Neoclassicism in Architecture
1730 to 1925 AD A keen interest in ideas of Renaissance
architect Andrea Palladio inspired a return of classical shapes in
Europe, Great Britain and the United States. These buildings
were proportioned according to the classical orders with details
borrowed from ancient Greece and Rome.
Art Nouveau Architecture
1890 to 1914 AD Known as the New Style, Art Nouveau was
first expressed in fabrics and graphic design. The style spread to
architecture and furniture in the 1890s. Art Nouveau buildings
often have asymmetrical shapes, arches and decorative
surfaces with curved, plant-like designs.

Beaux Arts Architecture

1895 to 1925 AD Also known as Beaux Arts Classicism,
Academic Classicism, or Classical Revival, Beaux Arts architecture
is characterized by order, symmetry, formal design, grandiosity,
and elaborate ornamentation.
Neo-Gothic Architecture
1905 to 1930 AD In the early twentieth century, Gothic ideas
were applied to modern buildings. Gargoyles, arched windows, and
other medieval details ornamented soaring skyscrapers.
Art Deco Architecture
1925 to 1937 AD Zigzag patterns and vertical lines create
dramatic effect on jazz-age, Art Deco buildings. Interestingly, many
Art Deco motifs were inspired by the architecture of ancient Egypt.

 Modernist Styles in Architecture

1900 to Present. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen
dramatic changes and astonishing diversity. Modern-day
trends include Art Modern and the Bauhaus school coined by
Walter Gropius, Deconstructivism, Formalism, Modernism,
and Structuralism.
Postmodernism in Architecture
1972 to Present. A reaction against the Modernist
approaches gave rise to new buildings that re-invented
historical details and familiar motifs. Look closely at these
architectural movements and you are likely to find ideas
that date back to classical and ancient times.

Mediums of Architecture
Wood-Is the common building material today. Its advantages are
its abundance, relative durability and high tensile and compression
strength. However, it is easily destroyed by moisture, insects, and
fire.
Stone-is the material used in most of the great architecture of
the world where permanence is desired.
Concreteis a building material made of sand and gravel mixed
with ceme3nt. Like stone, it has high compressive strength. It
doesn't easily crumble or break down when subjected to heavy
weight. It does not corrode and is fire resistant. For stronger
structure, Ferro-concrete or reinforced concrete is used. It is
concrete reinforced with steel.

Steel-it is still demand today. It is a tough alloy of iron in

variable amounts. It is malleable under proper conditions and
greatly hardened by sudden cooling. It has tensile strength. The
used of structural steel makes it possible for the architect to build
many of the present day structures without worrying about the
problem of space and the weight of the other materials. It has also
made possible the building of the high-rise structures which are
very popular these days.

Contemporary Techniques in Architecture addresses the

translation of techniques in design methodology to their
architectural realization, at the scale of space, material
programmed and construction. It challenges techniquedriven experimental architects at the next intellectually
rigorous level - that of exploring concepts and translating
them into their material counterparts. How do you think
through the building of avant-garde forms? The title
includes the work of high-profile philosophers, architects
and engineers, such as Manuel Delanda who wrote 1000
Years of Non-Linear History; Greg Lynn and Foreign Office
Architects; and Cecil Balmond of Ove Arup, who worked
with Daniel Libeskind on his proposal for the Spiral Building
for the V&A Museum in London, as well as with Philip
Johnson and Studio Baad on the Chavasse Park Project
featured
here.

Intellectually stimulating and visually engaging, with its

inclusion of spectacular writing, designs, manufactured
prototypes
and
full-scale
buildings,
Contemporary
Techniques in Architecture takes architectural publishing's
treatment of the digital to a new level, looking at its
potential in a realized form as well as a creative medium.