PEMBOLEHUBAH,

TAHAP PENGUKURAN &

UJIAN STATISTIKAL

Section 2.1

What are the Types of Data?

In Every Statistical Study:

Questions

are posed
Characteristics are observed

Characteristics are Variables

A Variable is any characteristic

that is recorded for subjects in
the study

Variation in Data

The

terminology variable
highlights the fact that data
values vary.

Example: Students in a Statistics

Class
Variables:

Age
GPA
Major
Smoking Status

Data values are called

observations
Each

observation can be:

Quantitative
Categorical

Categorical Variable
Each

observation belongs to one of a

set of categories

Examples:

Gender (Male or Female)

Religious Affiliation (Catholic, Jewish,
)
Place of residence (Apt, Condo, )
Belief in Life After Death (Yes or No)

Quantitative Variable
Observations

take numerical values

Examples:

Age
Number of siblings
Annual Income
Number of years of education
completed

Graphs and Numerical

Summaries
Describe

the main features of

a variable

For

Quantitative variables:
key features are center and
spread

For

Categorical variables:
key feature is the percentage
in each of the categories

Quantitative Variables

Discrete

Quantitative
Variables
and

Continuous

Variables

Quantitative

Discrete and Continuous Variables

Discrete variables are variables in which there are no

intermediate values possible.
e.g: The number of phone calls you receive per day. You
cannot receive 6.3 phone calls.
Continuous variables are everything else; any variable
that can theoretically have values in between points
e.g., between 153 and 154 lbs. for instance.

Discrete

quantitative variable is
discrete if its possible values
form a set of separate
numbers such as 0, 1, 2, 3,

Examples of discrete variables

Number

of pets in a household
Number of children in a family
Number of foreign languages
spoken

Continuous

quantitative variable is
continuous if its possible
values form an interval

Examples of Continuous Variables

Height
Weight
Age
Amount

of time it takes to
complete an assignment

Identify the following variable as

categorical or quantitative:

Choice of diet
(vegetarian or non-vegetarian):

Categorical
b. Quantitative
a.

Identify the following variable as categorical

or quantitative:
Number of people you have known who
have been elected to political office:
Categorical
b. Quantitative
a.

Identify the following variable as

discrete or continuous:

The number of people in line at a box

office to purchase theater tickets:
Continuous
b. Discrete
a.

Identify the following

variable as discrete or
continuous:
The weight of a dog:
a. Continuous
b. Discrete

Maklumat Apa yang akan dikumpul?

Jenis2 Data Pengukuran
Instrumen

ialah satu alat ukur untuk mengukur,

memerhati, atau mendokumentasikan data
bagi pembolehubah kuantitatif.
Jenis2 Instrumen
Pengukuran Pencapaian/performance (cth.
Ujian Pencapaian)
Pengukuran Sikap/Attitudinal (sikap/perasaan
terhadap matapelajaran sains)
Pengukuran Tingkahlaku (Pemerhatian
tingkahlaku)
Pengukuran Fakta (dokumen, records)
Educational Research 2e:
Creswell

Kaitan ant. Pengumpulan data data dgn

pembolehubah dan persoalan kajian
Contoh

Aliran Aktiviti
Mengenalpasti Pembolehubah

Efikasi-Kendiri utk. Belajar dari

Rakan

Tahap keyakinan seseorang

Mendefinasikan Pembolehubah secara
individu yang mereka dapat
Operasi
memepelajari sesuatu jika diajar
oleh rakan
Mengenalpasti data
13 item utk self-efficacy
(ukuran, pemerhatian,
attitudinal scale dari Bergin
dokumen dgn
(1989)
soalan/item dan skala)

Mengumpul Data
menggunakan instrumen
yg memberikan skor dlm
bentuk nombor.

Skor utk setiap item mempunyai

julat dari 0-10 dgn 10 ialah
Berkeyakinan Sepenuhnya.
Educational Research 2e:
Creswell

Instrumen Apakah yang akan anda

Gunakan? Mendapatkan atau Membina
Instrumen
Lihat

dalam published journal articles

Pencarian ERIC search dgn
menggunakan term instruments
dan topik kajian
ERIC web site for Evaluation and
Assessment
Dapatkan panduan kpd. Ujian2 yang
ada dipasaran.
Bina sendiri instrumen
Educational Research 2e:
Creswell

VARIABLE
A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can
exist in different amounts or types
FOUR TYPES OF VARIABLES

Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Controlled Variable
Extraneous Variable

VARIABLE
Independent Variable
The variable being manipulated or changed
Dependent Variable
The observed result of the independent variable being
manipulated.
The event studied and expected to change whenever the
independent variable is altered.
Controlled Variable
They are the variables that are kept constant to prevent
their influence on the effect of the independent variable
on the dependent.
Extraneous Variable
Variable that might affect the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables

 Independent variables answer the question "What

do I change?
Dependent variables answer the question "What do
I observe?
Controlled variables answer the question "What do I
keep the same?"
Extraneous variables answer the question "What
uninteresting variables might mediate the effect of
the IV on the DV

Question

Independent
Variable (What I
change)

Does
fertilizer
make a
plant grow
bigger?

Amount of
fertilizer measured
in grams

Dependent
Variables
(What I
observe)

Controlled Variables
(What I keep the same)

Growth of the
plant measured
by its height
Growth of the
plant measured
by the number of
leaves
See Measuring
Plant Growth for
more ways to
measure plant
growth

Same size pot for each plant

Same type of plant in each
pot
Same type and amount of
soil in each pot
Same amount of water and
light
Make measurements of
growth for each plant at the
same time
"The many variables above
can each change how fast a
plant grows, so to insure a fair
test of the fertilizer, each of
them must be kept the same
for every pot."

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
The level of measurement refers to the relationship
among the values that are assigned to the attributes for
a variable.
There are four types of measurements or
levels of measurement or measurement scales used in
statistics:
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio.

Nominal
variable measured on a "nominal" scale is a variable that
does not really have any evaluative distinction.
One value is really not any greater than another.
The numerical values just "name" the attribute uniquely.
A good example of a nominal variable is sex (or gender).
- Information in a data set on sex is usually coded as 0 or
1, 1 indicating male and 0 indicating female (or the other
way around--0 for male, 1 for female).
- 1 in this case is an arbitrary value and it is not any
greater or better than 0. There is only a nominal
difference between 0 and 1.
With nominal variables, there is a qualitative difference
between values, not a quantitative one.

Nominal Scale
Example:
Jersey numbers in basketball are measures at the
nominal level.
A player with number 30 is not more of anything than a
player with number 15, and is certainly not twice
whatever number 15 is.

Ordinal
Something measured on an "ordinal" scale does have an
evaluative connotation.
One value is greater or larger or better than the other.
Example: Product A is preferred over product B, and
therefore A receives a value of 1 and B receives a value
of 2.
Another example: Academic Qualification might be
rating on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 representing the
highest academic qualification.
With ordinal scales, we only know that 2 is better than 1
or 10 is better than 9; we do not know by how much. It
may vary. The distance between 1 and 2 maybe shorter
than between 9 and 10.

Interv
al

A variable measured on an interval scale gives

information about more or betterness as ordinal
scales do, but interval variables have an equal
distance between each value.
The distance between 1 and 2 is equal to the
distance between 9 and 10.
Temperature using Celsius or Fahrenheit is a good
example, there is the exact same difference between
100 degrees and 90 as there is between 42 and 32.

Ratio
Something measured on a ratio scale has the same
properties that an interval scale has except.
With a ratio scaling, there is an absolute zero point.

Weight is the example, 0 lbs. is a meaningful absence

of weight.

Paras Ukuran
Data

Sifat

Nominal

Pengkelasan objek atau orang dan sebagainya

kepada kategori yang diskrit mengikut sifat
kualitatif.
Ukuran paling asas.
Contoh:
Pembolehubah
jantina
dikategori
kepada lelaki dan perempuan.

Ordinal

Pengkelasan objek atau orang dan sebagainya

mengikut urutan keutamaan atau rank
Contoh: Tahap kelulusan akademik, persepsi.

Jeda/Sela
(interval)

Mempunyai urutan atau rank serta wujud

perbezaan antara jeda tetapi tiada mutlak
kosong
Contoh: Markah pelajar, IQ, sikap, minat.

Nisbah (ratio)

Mempunyai urutan atau rank serta wujud

perbezaan antara jeda dan mempunyai mutlak
kosong
Contoh: Tinggi, Umur, Berat

Why is Level of Measurement Important?

First, knowing the level of measurement helps you
decide how to interpret the data from that variable.
- When you know that a measure is nominal, then you
know that the numerical values are just short codes for
the longer names.
Second, knowing the level of measurement helps you
decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the
values that were assigned.
- If a measure is nominal, then you know that you would
never average the data values

P. Ukuran
Data

Sifat

Tujuan

Ujian Yg
Sesuai

Nominal

Pengkelasan
mengikut
kategori

Perkaitan
pembolehubah

Khi Kuasa
Dua

Ordinal

Mengikut
urutan
keutamaan
atau rank

Perkaitan
pembolehubah

Speraman
rho
MannWhitney
Wilcoxon

P.
Ukuran
Data
Jeda

(interval)

Nisbah
(ratio)

Sifat

Tujuan

Mempunyai
urutan atau rank
serta wujud
perbezaan antara
jeda tetapi tiada
mutlak kosong

Perbezaan Min satu pembolehubah

bersandar berdasarkan satu
pembolehubah tak bersandar (2
kategori)
Perbezaan Min satu pembolehubah
bersandar berdasarkan satu
pembolehubah tak bersandar (3 kategori
atau lebih)
Perbezaan Min satu pembolehubah
bersandar berdasarkan dua
pembolehubah tak bersandar
Perbezaan Min bagi dua atau lebih
pembolehubah bersandar berdasarkan
dua atau lebih pembolehubah tak
bersandar
Korelasi antara pembolehubah
Sumbangan pembolehubah tak
bersandar ke atas pembolehubah
bersandar

Ujian-t

Sama seperti untuk skala Jeda

Sama seperti
untuk skala Jeda

Mempunyai
urutan/ rank serta
wujud perbezaan
antara jeda dan
mutlak kosong

Ujian Yg Sesuai

ANOVA SatuHala
ANOVA Dua-Hala
MANOVA
Korelasi Pearson
Regrasi
Berganda