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https://www.youtube.com/va/.ruSTiOmiyWw

Russia Goes Communist

Russia on the Eve of
Revolution
Industrialization
February Revolution
October Revolution
Vladimir Lenin
USSR
Civil War
Leon Trotsky
Famine
Kronstadt Rebellion

Communism Spreads
Joseph Stalin
First 5-Year Plan
Holodomor
Second 5-Year Plan
Great Purge
Dewey Commission
GULAG

Russia on the Eve of Revolution

Russia was agrarian
and backward
compared to
Western Europe.
Recent
industrialization and
the rise of market
capitalism created
frustration for the
poor.
The Romanov
dynasty faced
growing opposition.

Nicholas II, Last of the Romanovs

The Romanov dynasty
ruled Russia for more
than 300 years, from
1613 to 1917.
The czar was the
supreme ruler, who
believed he was chosen
by God, and loved by his
people.
Czar is the Russian form
of the Latin Caesar.
In response to the failed
revolution of 1905, Czar
Nicholas established a
legislative body, the
Duma, and promised civil
liberties, but was
unwilling to share power.
Czar Nicholas II
By the Grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat
of All the Russias, 1868-1918

Nicholas and the royal family

Nicholas abdicated in March 1917

and was exiled to the Urals. After the
Bolsheviks took power, his
imprisonment grew more severe. His
entire family was executed in June
1918.

Last known photo of Nicholas in

exile

Russian Population, 1917

by social class - %

Russia: A Backward, Agricultural Society

Serfdom, a form of slavery in which peasants were bound to

large agricultural estates, existed in Russia from the 11th
century.
More than a third of the Russian population were serfs when
the institution was abolished in 1861.
After 1861, former serfs
still worked the land for
large landowners.
Russian agriculture was
backward and unproductive.
Land reform was a major
demand of the Russian
peasants at the end of
the czarist regime.

Rapid Industrialization
1870s Extensive railroad system developed
1880s Modern factories built in major cities
1890s Protective tariffs imposed
By 1900, Russia
was fourth in the
world in steel
production, and
second in
petroleum
production.
It had the
largest factories
in the world.

Furniture factories, Moscow, early 1900s

On the eve of the revolution, 10% of Russians

were urban factory workers, the proletariat.
Working conditions were harsh.
Housing was dismal and overcrowded.
Compared to
Western Europe
and the U.S.,
industrialization
came late, fast
and hard to
Russia.
Putilov Works
St. Petersburg, 1903

Two Russian Revolutions of

1917(March)
February Revolution
Czar abdicates; Provisional Government established.

October Revolution (November)*

Bolsheviks seize power.

*Called the "October Revolution" because it was October

according to the Julian calendar, revised by Julius Caesar in 46
BCE and still in use in czarist Russia. Most of the world was using
the Gregorian calendar, revised by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582.
According to the Gregorian
calendar, the February
Revolution occurred in March,
and the October Revolution
occurred in November. Russia
switched to the Gregorian
calendar in 1918.

February Revolution
March 1917 Food shortages brought on by the war
caused widespread hunger. Strikes and food riots
broke out in Petrograd (St. Petersburg).
Czarist troops sent to quell the riots switched sides
and joined the demonstrations. Disorder spread
through the city.
On March 15, Czar
Nicholas abdicated in
favor of his brother,
who declined the
crown.
A Provisional
Government was
formed by the Duma,
but its rule was
challenged by the
Petrograd Soviet.
Street demonstration, Petrograd, June 1917.

The Provisional Government promised major reforms, including

civil rights and distribution of agricultural lands, but argued that
these reforms would have to wait until the war was successfully
concluded.

Alexander Kerensky (center, in white) arriving in Moscow August 1917.

Kerensky, one of the most radical members of the Provisional
Government, was its leader from July through November.

Bolsheviks
The Marxist Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party was formed
in 1898, uniting various Russian revolutionary parties.
In 1903, the party split into two groups, the Bolsheviks
("majority"), who followed Lenin, and the Mensheviks
("minority").

In 1917, the Bolsheviks,

led by Lenin, seized
control of the Russian
Revolution.
As the Communist Party
of the Soviet Union, the
Bolsheviks would rule
the USSR for more than
70 years.

Bolshevik Party meeting

Lenin is at right.

October Revolution

Workers and peasants were unwilling to postpone reforms until the

end of the war.
After a failed campaign against Germany launched by Kerensky in
July, the army rebelled against the Provisional Government and
demanded an end to the war.
Lenin, promising bread
and an end to the war, led
a successful coup to take
control of the
government.
He led the formation of a
new government, the first
in the world to attempt to
put Marxist principles into
practice.
Bolshevik forces marching on Red
Square, 1917

The Internationale
Original French lyrics by Eugne
Pottier, 1870.
Anthem of the Soviet Union, 19181943.
Translated into many languages.
Used as anthem by communist,
socialist and anarchist parties around
the world.

Arise ye workers from your slumbers

Arise ye prisoners of want
For reason in revolt now thunders
And at last ends the age of cant.
Away with all your superstitions
Servile masses arise, arise
We'll change henceforth the old tradition
And spurn the dust to win the prize.
Refrain:
So comrades, come rally
And the last fight let us face
The Internationale unites the human race.

No more deluded by reaction

On tyrants only we'll make war
The soldiers too will take strike action
They'll break ranks and fight no more
And if those cannibals keep trying
To sacrifice us to their pride
They soon shall hear the bullets flying
We'll shoot the generals on our own side.
No saviour from on high delivers
No faith have we in prince or peer
Our own right hand the chains must shiver
Chains of hatred, greed and fear
E'er the thieves will out with their booty
And give to all a happier lot.
Each at the forge must do their duty
And we'll strike while the iron is hot.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin

Lenin is known as the father
of Communism in Russia.
Lawyer, writer, professor,
living in self-imposed exile
in Switzerland.
Returned to Russia in 1917.
Powerful speaker, brilliant
orator and tactician.
Lenin led the Bolsheviks in
taking over the Russian
revolution.

Vladimir Lenin

1870-1924

Lenin Returns to Russia

In 1917, after the February Revolution, Lenin wanted to return
to Russia, but he would have to travel through Europe, where
WWI was raging.
The German high command arranged for his passage from
Zurich through Germany, Sweden and Finland in a sealed
railroad car.
The Germans hoped that Lenin
and other revolutionaries
would take Russia out of the
war.
Russians in the Provisional
Government hoped that Lenin
would support the newly
formed revolutionary state.
All land to the
peasants!
All power to the soviets!
Stop the war now!

Leninism: The Telescoping of History

Karl Marx, considered the father of communism, wrote that history
proceeds through distinct stages: feudalism, capitalism, imperialism,
etc. Only after going through these stages, Marx thought, could
society advance to communism.
Lenin argued that under the right circumstances, such as those of
Russia in 1917, the intermediate steps could be skipped.

Marx wrote about the dictatorship of the

proletariat, a period in which the working
class would govern society while the
ultimate classless society of communism
was developed.
To Lenin, the dictatorship of the proletariat
meant that a small group of dedicated
individuals would lead society forcefully so
that the groundwork could be laid for the
future ideal society.

1918: Lenin Begins

to Change Russian
Society
Treaty with Germany cedes
land in exchange for peace.
All industry nationalized.
Independent labor unions
banned.
Grain requisitions: armed
officials seize grain from
farmers to feed the poor.
Housing space seized and
distributed.

"Comrade Lenin Cleanses the Earth of Filth"

Communist poster, 1920

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was created in

1922.

Ukraine

Transcaucasian Region

Russia

Belarus

Civil War: 1918-1921

Opposition to the new Soviet regime included landowners,
conservatives, republicans and those opposed to the
unfavorable treaty Lenin signed with Germany.
Anti-Soviets formed the White
Army to oppose Bolshevik
rule.
Western allies, including
Britain, France and the U.S.,
took Lenins call for world
revolution seriously and sent
troops and aid to support the
White Army.
"Bolshevism must be
strangled in its cradle,"
Winston Churchill said.
In response, the Soviets, led
by Leon Trotsky, organized the
Red Army. Using inscription
and recruitment, they built a
disciplined army of millions.

Leon Trotsky
Trotsky was a key figure in the
Russian Revolution, second
only to Lenin.
From 1918 to 1925, he was
People's Commissar for Army
and Navy Affairs and
commander of the Red Army.

When Lenin died in 1924, Trotsky was widely expected to

assume leadership of the country. Instead, that role went to
Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Central Committee.
As leader of the Left Opposition, Trotsky opposed Stalin. He
was purged from the Communist Party in 1927 and exiled in
1928.
From exile, he continued to oppose Stalin and Stalinism.
Trotsky was assassinated by Stalinists in 1940 at his home in
Mexico City.

Lenin, Trotsky and soldiers

of the Red Army, 1921

"Have you signed

up as a volunteer?"
Civil war recruitment
poster

Coat of Arms
of the Soviet
Union

TROTSKYISM
For decades, Communists
around the world were
divided.
Some remained loyal to
the Soviet Union and took
direction from the Central
Committee.
Other were aligned with
Trotskys Left Opposition.
Bitter struggles between
the two groups took place
in many countries.

Leon Trotsky's grave in

Coyoacn, Mexico. His house
is now a museum.

War Communism and

the New Economic Policy
From 1918 through 1921, the Bolsheviks
implemented radical economic changes. Under
"War Communism," all industry was nationalized,
private enterprise was made illegal, and economic
planning was centralized.
The results were disastrous for the Russian
economy and led to a major famine in 1921.
In 1921, Lenin introduced the New Economic
Policy (NEP). The state retained control of banking
and major industries, but small business ventures
were allowed, farmers were allowed to sell surplus
production, and trade restrictions were loosened.
"We are not civilized enough for socialism," Lenin
said.
In 1929, Stalin abolished the NEP.

Famine of 1921-1922
Causes:
Disruption of
agricultural
production by
WWI, the
revolution and
the civil war.
War
Communism
economic
policy.
Drought of
1921.

Results:
Approximately five million
deaths.

Kronstadt Rebellion: March 1921

At the end of the civil war, the Russian economy was devastated.
The sailors of the Baltic Fleet, along with soldiers and civilians from
Kronstadt, rebelled against the Bolshevik government (see note for
their list of demands).

Lenin denounced the

uprising as a plot by
reactionaries and their
European supporters.
The uprising was
brutally crushed.
The Bolshevik
governments reaction
was criticized by many
of its international
supporters.
Red Army troops attack Kronstadt

Worldwide Appeal of
Russia was the first
country to attempt to put the theory of
Communism
socialism into practice.
Many workers and intellectuals around the world thought that
at last there was a chance to overcome the inequality and
exploitation of market capitalism and build a society in which
everyone was respected and cared for.

Communist parties emerged in

the U.S. and Europe, and also in
Asia, Africa and Latin America,
where many countries suffered
from poverty and the remnants of
colonialism.
Maoist demonstration, Nepal

Permanent Revolution vs.

Communism in One Country
Lenin believed that the Russian Revolution
was merely the first step in a worldwide
workers revolution.
Trotsky believed that the Russian Revolution
could only succeed in the context of
permanent worldwide revolution.
Stalin believed that the opportunity for
worldwide revolution had passed, and that
the USSR should concentrate on building
communism in one country.

People's Republic of China

The infant emperor
Yuan Shikai
The Qing dynasty ends
Sun Yat-sen
Dictator Yuan
The KMT
Japan invades
The Rule of warlords
May Fourth Movement
The Soviet Union
Three governments
Chiang Kai-shek
World War II
Taiwan: The Republic of China
The Peoples Republic of China

31

The Infant Emperor

After the Boxer

Rebellion, China fell into
civil disorder.
Two succeeding
emperors died in the same
year.
The only Qing heir
remaining was a two-yearold boy.
Both the Empress
Dowager and the regent,
Zai Feng, were in charge of
the infant.

Empress Dowager Longyu

32

Republic of China
Sun Yat-sen, leader of the
Wuchang Uprising, took over
the city of Nanjing on October
10, 1911.
On January 1, 1912, Sun Yatsen officially declared the
Republic of China.
On January 11, he was elected
the first provisional president of
the republic.
General Yuan Shikai was
asked to defeat Sun Yat-sen.
Yuan refused unless he was
made regent.
The empress made Yuan
regent.

Yuan Shikai
33

The Qing Dynasty Ends

Sun Yat-sen agreed to
make Yuan president of
the republic on March
10, 1912.
The Empress agreed
that her infant son
would abdicate the
throne and allow China
to become a republic.
The Qing dynasty
ended in 1912, which
ended 2,000 years of
dynastic rule in China.
Sun Yat-sen
Abdicate: Give up power.
34

Sun Yat-sen

Sun Yat-sen Memorial

Sun Yat-sen and wife

Sun Yat-sen had been organizing against the Manchu since 1897.
His goals were:
To free the Chinese from Manchu rule.
To form a freely elected, socialist government in China.
35

Dictator Yuan
The new republic had many
problems with warlords and
foreign countries. However,
the biggest problem was
General Yuan.
Yuan immediately became
a dictator.
In the first general
election Yuan had his
opponent assassinated.
General Yuan gave
Mongolia to Russia and
Tibet to England in
exchange for support.
36

Kuomintang (KMT)

Kuomintang flag
In July 1914, Sun Yat-sen established the Chinese
Revolutionary Party, also called the Kuomintang (kwow
ming tang).
37

The
Kuomintang
(KMT) rebelled
against General
Yuan in Southern
China.
The KMT was
quickly defeated.
Sun Yat-sen
fled to Japan.

KMT Army
38

Japan Invades
The Japanese seized
control of Shangdong
Province, Manchuria.
They demanded that
China become a
Japanese protectorate
(like a colony).
With the backing of
the Japanese, Yuan
declared himself
emperor on December
12, 1915.

Japanese tank in Shangdong

Many generals revolted against Yuan.

Yuan was forced to abdicate.
He died in June of that year.
39

The Rule of Warlords

Duan Qirui
Li Yuanhong
and Sun Yatsen
By 1915, China was controlled by a confederation of warlords
under a central government in Beijing.
Beijing was controlled by Li Yuanhong and Premier Duan Qirui
(Dwon Chee Ray).
Duan Qirui took power and became a warlord dictator.
40

May Fourth Movement

At the end of World War I, the Beijing warlord government

agreed to give Shangdong Province to Japan at the Treaty of
Versailles.
The May Fourth Rebellion, made up of protests by students,
intellectuals, and leaders, forced the government to refuse the
treaty.
41

The Soviet Union

In 1920 Sun Yat-sen asked the Soviet Union for assistance. The
Soviet Union and Sun Yat-sen agreed to the following:
Organize the KMT with the same constitution as the Soviet
Communist Party.
The KMT would ally with the Communist Party of China.
The Soviets would train the new National Revolutionary Army
under Sun Yat-sens Lieutenant, Chiang Kai-shek (Chee-yang
Kai-shek).
42

Sun Yat-sen (middle) and Chiang Kai-shek (left)

43

Three Governments

Manchurian warlord
Zhang Zuolin, or
Mukden Tiger

Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao,

Founders of the Communist Party of China

In 1925, China had three different governments:

Chiang Kai-sheks KMT in Nanjing.
The Communist Party of China (CPC) in Wuhan.
The internationally recognized warlord regime in Beijing.
44

Chiang Kai-shek

Cavalry of KMT
Chiang Kai-shek began conquering the northern warlords.
By 1926 he had control of over half of China.
Chiang Kai-shek took control of the KMT.
He sent away the Soviet advisors.
He became anti-Communist.

45

Chinese soldiers, 1930

Impoverished Chinese
family, 1930

Chiang Kai-shek had taken control of all major cities in China

by 1928.
The major nations of the world recognized the KMT as the only
legitimate power in China.
46

World War II

Japanese surrender to China

Japan took control of Manchuria in 1931.
The combined KMT and CPC defense was not strong enough
to stop the Japanese.
The war ended with the Japanese surrender to the United
States and Japanese disarmament.
47

Manchuria

China

Taiwan
48

Taiwan: The Republic of China

KMT Army

Peoples Liberation Army

In 1945 the Peoples Liberation Army began a war against

the KMT.
In 1947 Chiang Kai-sheks KMT retreated to the island of
Taiwan.
The KMT declared Taiwan to be the Republic of China.
49

Peoples Republic of China

Mao Zedong
In 1949 the Peoples Liberation Army, under Mao Zedong
(Mow Say-dung) took control of China.
He formed the Peoples Republic of China.
50

Second Agricultural
Revolution

The Start of the Industrial Revolution

Estimated Population of England 10661900
London in 1440 and 1840
Distribution of Population
Agricultural Innovators
Turnips, Cattle and Crop Rotation
King George III
Enclosure
From the Country to the City
Table of Contents

51

The Start of the Industrial Revolution

[By 1750, the Agricultural Revolution had led to a large increase in
Europes population.
[About 93% of the people of Europe lived in rural areas.
[New innovations revolutionized manufacturing.
[People began emigrating from rural to urban areas searching for
economic opportunities.
[Advances in medicine, hygiene and agriculture improved the quality and
length of peoples lives.

52
http://www.uncp.edu/home/rwb/agriculture_england2.jpg

Industrial
Revolution
Agricultural
Revolution
Norman
Invasion

Black
Death

53

London in 1440 and 1840

Urbanization and
industrialization
changed the
architecture and way
of life in London.

Right: London 1140

and 1840, from
Pugins Contrasts,
published 1836.

Urbanization: The
process in which
more people move
to cities.

54

Agricultural Innovators
Jethro Tull developed the seed drill
to make sowing seeds faster and more
efficient than planting them by hand.
The seed drill makes a small hole and
drops the seed into it. It is estimated
that crop yields rose as much as eight
times. Large motor-driven seed drills
are used today.

Seed Drill

Jethro Tull

Robert Bakewell developed the

use of selective livestock breeding in
England. He bred Dishley Longhorn
cattle for beef, New Leicester sheep
for their fine wool and ability to live in
the cold English climate, and the Shire
horse for its strength.

Clockwise: New Leicester Sheep, Shire

Horse, Dishley Longhorn Cow

55

Turnips, Cattle and Crop Rotation

Lord Charles Townshend helped
develop the four-field crop rotation
system using wheat, barley, turnips
and clover.
Four-field crop rotation was a key
development in the Agricultural
Revolution.
In 1730 Lord Townshend imported
Dutch-grown turnips to feed cattle
during the winter.
Using inexpensive turnips and
clover allowed farmers to maintain
their livestock year-round.
Previously, English farmers
slaughtered their cattle before
winter because the cost of feed was
too high.

Right, Clockwise: Clover, Barley, Wheat.

Far Right: Townshend, Turnips, Bull

56

King George III

King George III was very interested in agriculture
and was known as "Farmer George."
He maintained large gardens at his estates at
Richmond and Windsor.
The British Agricultural Revolution reached its
peak during his reign (17601820).

19th-century plowing
with six- oxen team in
Sussex, England.

57

Enclosure
Enclosure is when land that was traditionally held and used in common is
fenced by private owners.
Enclosure in England occurred between 1750 and 1860 as a result of
parliamentary acts.
Enclosure resulted in 21% of the land in England being fenced for private
use.
This resulted in larger, more efficient farms that required less labor.
Many English peasants, who were no longer able to graze sheep and
cattle or live off the land, were forced to move to the cities for employment.

A doggerel (rhyme) of the time went:

The law locks up the man or woman
who steals the goose from off the
common; But leaves the greater
villain loose who steals the common
from the goose.
58

From the Country to the City

The population of England
rose slowly, by less than two
million people, during the 100
years from 1700 to 1800.
The population then
increased sharply from 1801 to
1901, increasing by over 22
million.
Many people moved into the
cities looking for work.

Population of England
1700 1901

1700 1800-------------------------1900

59

The Conditions for Change

Major Factors That Contributed to Industrialization in England

The Putting-Out System
Urbanization in England
Mercantilism and Navigation Acts
Anglo-Dutch Wars
Boston Tea Party
Seven Years War
Britain Gains Canada and India
Trading with the Colonies
Englands Trade Network
Europe Dominated Manufacturing Markets
Cotton and India

Table of Contents

60

Major Factors Existing in England That Contributed to Industrialization:

Large supplies of coal and

iron.
A large number of people
willing and able to work.
Many engineers and
innovators.
Large amount of wealth from
colonies.
A stable government
supporting entrepreneurs.
Religious values emphasizing
hard work and savings.

Manufacturing Regions
1759

61

The Putting-Out System

^The "putting-out system" was a way for 18thcentury businesses to contract workers from
their homes; an example of cottage industry.
^Different parts of a product were made in
the home, collected, and then assembled at a
central location.
^The main products of this system were
textiles, locks, guns, and iron goods such as
pots, pans, and pins.
^In the cottage textile industry, for example,
the entire family was involved in cotton yarn
production:
^ Children would sort the cotton fibers in a
process called carding.
^ Women would spin the fibers into threads.
^ Men would weave the threads into fabric.

62

Urbanization in England
By 1750, large numbers
of workers had begun to
move into urban areas.
This provided a large pool
of workers for factory
labor.

Distribution of
Population in
England, 1750

More factories
encouraged more
workers to move to the
cities, and more workers
attracted more industry.

63

Mercantilism and the Navigation Acts

Mercantilism was an economic
theory that argued that nations acquire
wealth by exporting more than they
import.
The value of imports and exports,
called the balance of trade, was
measured in gold and silver bullion
(bars). [omit (silver or gold).]
Governments passed trade laws
encouraging companies to export while
limiting imports through tariffs (import
taxes).
The English Navigation Acts were a
result of mercantile policies.
The acts allowed only ships of the
United Kingdom to trade directly with
England.

Gold Bullion
Warring British and Dutch Fleets

64

Anglo-Dutch Wars
The Navigation Acts caused tension between the Netherlands and
England.
The British and Dutch competed to control ocean trade.
There were four Anglo-Dutch Wars from 1652 to 1784.
The wars were fought entirely at sea.
In the end the English gained control of Dutch trade routes.

Dutch Victory, 1667

Fourth Anglo-Dutch War65

David Dale, New Lanark, and Highland Clearances

Many new textile mills were started using the water wheel. New towns
grew up around the mills.
New Lanark was a mill town established in 1786 by David Dale, a Scottish
merchant and businessman.
Dale offered employment to poor Scottish Highlanders who had had their
land taken from them by the "Highland Clearances."
These were parliamentary acts similar to the Enclosure Acts in England 100
years earlier.

David Dale

Scotland

New Lanark

66

Lancashire County
Much of the innovation for the
United Kingdoms Industrial
Revolution came out of
Lancashire County, which
included the cities of Manchester
and Liverpool.
Lancashire is located in
northern England.
The county has a cool, moist
climate that was ideal for cotton
spinning.
It also has many natural
streams to provide water power.

67
http://rmhh.co.uk/gifs/blackpool/bowenmap.jpg

Mechanization of the Textile Industry

The flying shuttle, invented by John Kay in 1733,
increased the speed at which cloth could be woven.

The carding machine

was developed by Daniel
Bourn and Lewis Paul in 1748.
It speeded up the process of
brushing raw or washed fibers
to prepare them for spinning,
called carding.

Innovation: The creation, development and

implementation of a new product, process or service.
68

Innovations in Cotton Spinning:

Hargreaves and Arkwright
In 1764 James Hargreaves invented the
spinning jenny.
It was hand-operated and could spin
eight threads at a time.

Richard Arkwright developed an

improved spinning machine called
a water frame.
Water wheels were used to turn
the machine.
In 1771 Arkwright built the
world's first water-powered cotton
mill at Cromford, Derbyshire,
England.

69

The Spinning Mule

In 1779 Samuel Crompton invented the spinning
mule, bringing water power to large-scale factory
production of thread. The spinning mule could spin
large numbers of threads at a time.

70

spinning mule machine

71

The power loom, invented by Edward

Cartwright in 1785, used mechanical power
from water wheels. It was designed so one
person could operate many looms.

The Jacquard loom,

a type of punch card
loom, was developed
by Frenchman Joseph
Marie Jacquard around
1804. It automated
pattern weaving, using
punch cards to control
the design.

Cartwright

Jacquard

The roller spinning machine was

developed in 1839 by Lewis Paul and John
Wyatt. It increased the speed of making thread.
They powered their machines using a donkey.
72

Eli Whitney
In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, a
mechanical device used to remove the seeds from
cotton fiber.
Prior to the cotton gin, seeds were removed by hand.
Not only did the cotton gin allow faster production of
cotton, it was also capable of processing the short fiber
or "short staple" cotton, thereby increasing the amount
and type of cotton available for the industry.

An unintended consequence of the cotton

gin was that, in expanding cotton production
in the southern United States, it caused an
increase in the use of slave labor used to
plant and harvest cotton.

73

Interchangeable Parts
In 1778, Honor Blanc demonstrated that
muskets could be built using interchangeable
parts.
Eli Whitney is often credited with the
development of interchangeable parts, which
he used for the muskets that he produced for
the U.S. Army in 1798. Whitney was a strong
promoter of the idea.
In America, John H. Hall, the inventor of the
M1819 Hall breech-loading rifle, perfected the
production of interchangeable parts, using
specialized milling machines to produce his
rifles in 1819.
Henry Maudslay, a 19th-century British
machine tool maker, improved the accuracy of
milling machines used for making
interchangeable precision parts. He is
considered a founding father of machine tool
technology.

Flintlock Musket

A lathe is a type of
milling machine.
74

Interchangeable Parts
In 1778, Honor Blanc demonstrated that
muskets could be built using interchangeable
parts.
Eli Whitney is often credited with the
development of interchangeable parts, which
he used for the muskets that he produced for
the U.S. Army in 1798. Whitney was a strong
promoter of the idea.
In America, John H. Hall, the inventor of the
M1819 Hall breech-loading rifle, perfected the
production of interchangeable parts, using
specialized milling machines to produce his
rifles in 1819.
Henry Maudslay, a 19th-century British
machine tool maker, improved the accuracy of
milling machines used for making
interchangeable precision parts. He is
considered a founding father of machine tool
technology.

Flintlock Musket

A lathe is a type of
milling machine.
75

Thomas Newcomen
Thomas Newcomen built the first practical steam engine. It was used for
pumping water out of mines in the first decade of the 18th century.
His engine converted steam power into mechanical energy.
It used reciprocal (back and forth) motion.
It was called the atmospheric or Newcomen steam engine.

76

James Watt and Practical Steam Power

James Watt was a Scottish engineer who, in 1775, modified the
steam engine and made it practical for industrial use.
He is credited with the invention of the sun and planet gear, a
method of converting reciprocal (back and forth) motion to rotary
(circular) motion.

Sun and Planet Gear

James Watt
77

Matthew Boulton
Matthew Boulton was a toymaker who bought a two-thirds share of
Watts patent on his steam engine.
Boulton and Watt created a partnership to make steam engines at
their Soho Foundry near Birmingham, England.
Boulton brought success to the business by using interchangeable
parts and by placing all processes of production under one roof, creating
a modern factory.
Boulton kept his factories clean, well-lit and wellventilated.
He provided his employees with workers
insurance and refused to employ young children.
Boulton was a member of the Lunar Society (See
Industrialists and Enterprise).

Far Right: Matthew

Boultons "Moonstone"
from the Lunar Society

78

Richard Trevithick

Richard Trevithick was a British

inventor who built the first highpressure steam engine in 1799.
His invention made steam engines
smaller and useful for powering cotton
mills and locomotives.
Trevithick also built the first working
steam locomotive.

Clockwise from Top Left: First Locomotive, Trevithick, High-Pressure

Steam Engine, "Catch Me If You Can" Locomotive Circus

79

The Workhouse
The workhouse was a place where people went who could not support
themselves.
Homeless people and the insane were sent to workhouses by local
authorities.
Orphans, as in Charles Dickens novel Oliver Twist, were also sent to
workhouses.
Conditions in the workhouses were purposely harsh, in order to encourage
people to leave and find work.
Little money was provided to maintain workhouses.
People did unpaid work in exchange for food and shelter. People were fed
gruel, soup, bread and cheese.
Many children from workhouses were apprenticed to mine owners and
textile mills, where they worked for no wages.

80

Industrialization Spread to America: Samuel Slater

Samuel Slater (17681835), a Quaker merchant, is known as the "Founder
of the American Industrial Revolution."
Slater secretly brought plans for building cotton mills from England to
America.
England prohibited engineers from leaving the country, so Slater left for
America dressed as a farmer.
In 1793 he constructed the first successful cotton mill, called Slater Mill, in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island.
Slaters mill was based on Richard Arkwright's cotton spinning inventions.

Samuel
Slater

Slater Mill

Rhode Island

81

Manchester Becomes the International Center of Cotton

and Textile Production
By 1853 Manchester had 108 cotton mills.
Manchester was nicknamed "Cottonopolis," meaning the city of cotton.
Transportation systems expanded, linking Manchester to all of England.
Canals, turnpikes, and even the first passenger railway were all built in
Manchester.
In the ten years between 1806 and 1816, the number of warehouses in
Manchester soared from 1,000 to 1,819.

Cottonopolis by
Edward Goodall

82

Ideas of the Victorian Era

The Victorian Era

Etiquette in the Victorian Era
Courtship and Marriage in the
Victorian Era
Victorian Households
Capitalism
Adam Smith and Laissez-Faire
David Ricardo
Thomas Malthus and Population
Growth
Charles Darwin

Alfred Wallace
Social Darwinism
Eugenics
David Hume
Jeremy Bentham
John Stuart Mill
Robert Owen and Socialism
Utopian Socialism and
Anarchism
Utopian Philosophers and the
Social Contract
Karl Marx

Table of Contents

83

The Victorian Era

The Victorian era is named after Queen Victoria,
the longest-reigning monarch in British history.
She held the throne from 1837 to 1901.
Britain was just beginning to industrialize when
Queen Victoria ascended to the throne.
She reigned through the typhoid and cholera
epidemics of the 1830s1850s.
During her reign, women gained the legal rights
to property, divorce, and custody of children.
All men over 21 were given the right to vote.

Queen Victoria, 1837

84

Queen Victoria, 1897

Victorian Households
Women were expected to take care of
their homes and children in a proper,
respectable way.
Rules for running the household were
published in 1861 in Mrs. Beeton's Book of
Household Management.
The guide contained 2,751 rules.
It included advice about paying servants,
cooking meals, recipes, and child care.
Several million copies were sold.

85

Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic and social system in
which the means of production (factories,
machinery, and tools) are privately owned.
Production is accomplished through the use of
wage labor.
Prices of goods and services are determined by
the free market.

The Industrial Revolution and the factory system

spread capitalism across the world.
Theories about capitalist society were developed
by political economists such as Adam Smith and
David Ricardo.

86

Adam Smith and Laissez-Faire

Adam Smith (17231790) was a Scottish
philosopher and economist.
His book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of
the Wealth of Nations help to end mercantilist
policies and began the age of free-market
capitalism.
Smith argued that rational self-interest and
competition leads to a balanced economy and
prosperity.
Smith promoted policies of free trade, in which
markets are left to balance themselves.
He called this balancing process the "invisible
hand."
If left alone, he believed, market supply and
consumer demand will determine the "natural price"
of a commodity.
Market self-regulation is also called laissez-faire,
meaning "let do."
Rational self-interest: Ones actions are aimed at
maximizing economic gain.

87

David Ricardo
David Ricardo (17721823) was an English political
economist who contributed many ideas to free-market
economic theory.
His theory of comparative advantage states that
countries should specialize in the most efficient methods
and types of production for their resources.
He was against government intervention and supported
free competition.
He believed that wages should be decided by the
market, not by government policy.
Profit is limited by wages. However, with a strong
economy, wages will increase as profits increase.
Ricardo was against tariffs (taxes on imports), and
especially the "corn laws" that were used to protect
British feudal landlords by limiting agricultural imports.
Ricardo supported industrialists who used profits for
investments to increase production and benefit the
economy.

88

Thomas Malthus and Population Growth

Thomas Robert Malthus (17661834) was
an English demographer and political
economist.
Malthus is remembered for his views on
population growth, expressed in his book An
Essay on the Principle of Population.
Malthus argued that poverty is a natural
condition of humanity.
He noted that population growth occurs
after a nation has learned to expand its
resources, especially agricultural
production.
Malthus pointed out that populations grow
geometrically (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.) while food
supplies increase only arithmetically (1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, etc.).
He wrote that population growth was
controlled by epidemics, famines, or wars,
which occur when a nation reaches the
limits of its resources.

Food and Population

Growth
89

Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin (18091882) was an English naturalist who
developed the theory of the natural selection of species, commonly
known as evolution.
Darwin traveled for five years on the HMS Beagle as a geologist.
Darwin's observations of the distribution of plants and animals around
the world led him to develop his theory.
Darwin was encouraged by Alfred Russel Wallace, who was developing
a similar theory from his own observations.
In 1859 Darwin published On the Origin of Species, proposing
evolution as the primary cause of natural diversity.
Voyage of the
HMS Beagle

90

Alfred Wallace
Alfred Russel Wallace (18231913) was a British
naturalist and geographer.
He studied nature in the Amazon River basin and in
the Malay Archipelago.
He developed a theory of natural selection based on
his observations of warning coloration in animals.
He noted that when the population of a species is
separated, it develops into two species. This is now
known as the "Wallace effect."
In 1858 he and Darwin published On the Tendency
of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation
of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection.
Wallace was a social activist. He was against free
trade policy and promoted land reform for poor and
working-class people.
He opposed the ideas of Social Darwinism.

Right: Amazon Basin

and Malay Archipelago

91

Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism is the belief that
competition between individuals and groups
leads to evolution in human societies.
Herbert Spencer, influenced by the ideas of
Thomas Malthus, was the leading advocate of
Social Darwinism.
He coined the phrase "survival of the fittest,"
and suggested that people and nations evolved
in accordance with their morality and character.
Social Darwinism fit in well with laissez- faire
capitalism, and was used to justify the
exploitation of the poor and working classes by
the wealthy.
Social Darwinism was rejected by both Darwin
and Wallace.

Herbert Spencer

Thomas Malthus
92

Eugenics
Eugenics was an extreme form of Social Darwinism advocated by
Darwin's cousin Sir Francis Galton.
Galton believed that society should encourage selective breeding to
remove undesirable physical and social traits.
Eugenics was widely accepted well into the twentieth century, and led
to the racial policies of Nazi Germany.

Galton

Nazi Poster Separating

the Axis from the Allies
93

David Hume
David Hume (17111776) was an Scottish
philosopher, economist, and historian.
Hume was particularly interested in the ideas of
free will and responsibility.
Hume argued that people must follow a moral path
dedicated to promoting utility in their actions. He
believed that an ideal life for an individual was one of
hard work and little waste.

Hume stressed that free will had consequences based on cause and
effect. Hard work and good moral character led to success, while laziness
and immorality led to failure.
Humes ideas of utility would later influence Jeremy Bentham.
Hume also argued against mercantilism and influenced Adam Smith.

94

Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham (17481832) was an English
philosopher and social reformer.
He is known for his concept of utilitarianism, the belief
that a persons actions have moral value (utility).
The utility of a persons actions should bring
happiness and pleasure to society.
Bentham supported animal rights, the separation of
church and state, freedom of expression, the abolition of
slavery, equality for women, and free trade.

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign

masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we
ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand
the standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and
effects, are fastened to their throne. They govern us in all we do, in all
we say, in all we think..."
From The Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789)

95

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill (18061873) was a British
philosopher and political economist.
He built on Jeremy Benthams concept of
utilitarianism by arguing that some forms of
happiness are more valuable than others.
Mill is known for his ideas about liberty and the
power of the society over the individual.
He developed the "harm" principle, which states
that each individual has the right to act as he wishes,
so long as these actions do not harm others.
Mill supported abolitionism, womens rights and
suffrage, compulsory education, the public ownership
of natural resources, and equal taxation.

Women could
not vote in
England until
1928
96

Robert Owen and Socialism

Robert Owen (17711858) was a Welsh
social reformer.
He was one of the founders of socialism
and the cooperative movement.
Owen based his philosophy on three
fundamental ideas:
1. He believed that society is responsible
for human development.
2. He was firmly against religion because it
made men weak-minded.
3. He was against the factory system of
production.
In 1825 Owen put his socialist ideas to
work by creating two cooperative societies:
one at Orbston, near Glasgow, England, and
one at New Harmony, Indiana, which was
known as the New Harmony Society.
Within two years both communities
failed.

New Harmony, as Envisioned

by Owen

97

Utopian Socialism and Anarchism

The word "socialism" was first used in discussions of
the Association of All Classes of All Nations, formed by
Robert Owen in 1835.
Owen believed that the state could develop good
conduct in individuals.
Karl Marx referred to Owens ideals as "utopian
socialism."
Josiah Warren, a member of the New Harmony
Society, wrote that the community did not work
because its members lacked personal freedom and
private property.
Warren helped to develop the concept of American
individualist anarchism.

Socialism: The state is responsible for production

and the welfare of the people.

Josiah Warren

Karl Marx 98

Utopian Philosophers and the Social Contract

John Locke (16321704) was an English
philosopher. He believed that in a natural state,
people are equal and independent and that no one
has the natural right to harm anyone else. He also
believed that social inequality came with the
invention of money. He argued that a social contract
exists between the state and the people: the state
receives its power through the consent of the
people.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (17121788) was a

French philosopher strongly influenced by Locke. He
believed that people were naturally good, but that
the growth of societies forced them into competition,
producing inequality. He claimed that people
guaranteed their survival and freedom through social
contracts. In The social Contract, he wrote: "Man is
born free, and everywhere he is in chains."
99

Comte de Saint-Simon (17601825) was a

French utopian socialist. He believed that people were
ruled by the "hand of greed." He thought that
education could change this part of human nature. He
also thought that society should be governed by
industrialists and scientists who would make decisions
for the social good.

Pierre Joseph Proudhon (18091865) was a

French anarchist. He believed that the state,
capitalism, and the church all limited personal
freedom. He felt that workers should own the means
of production and that society, organized at the local
level, should regulate production.

Utopia: Ideal society

Anarchist: One who believes that people
can and should govern themselves

100

Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (18181883) was philosopher
and political economist.
Marx introduced the world to the ideas of
communism.
He believed that capitalism, filled with social
turmoil and injustice, would naturally fail, and
would be replaced by a classless society called
communism.
In 1848 he and Friedrich Engels wrote the
Communist Manifesto, stating, "The history of all
hitherto existing society is the history of class
struggles."
According to Marx, communism would develop
after the impoverished workers of world, called the
proletariat, came together and revolted against the
ruling bourgeoisie (wealthy merchants and
industrialists).

101

Iranian Revolution

Iranian Revolution
In 1978, protesters opposed to Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi were
able to drive him from power when the U.S. withdrew its support.
On February 1, 1979, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini returned to
Tehran from France, where he had been in exile since 1964.
Khomeini in exile in
Turkey

Demonstrations in
Tehran

The Shah and

his wife

The Ayatollah Khomeini established

a fundamentalist Shiite Muslim
government in Iran. A new
religious-based constitution was
adopted in late 1979.
On November 4, Islamic militants
seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran
and took 53 Americans hostage,
demanding return of the Shah, who
was then in United States for
medical treatment.

Shah Reza Pahlavi of

Iran

Ayatollah Khomeini
was a popular leader
who expressed
Iranian resentment of
the United States,
which he called the
Great Satan. His
government banned
the opposition and
enforced a
fundamentalist
interpretation of
Islam through the
new constitution.

Iran Hostage Crisis, 1979

The hostage situation at the U.S. embassy in Iran created a serious
crisis for the Carter administration. President Carter refused to
return the Shah to Iran, and the situation dragged on.

On April 24, 1980, the U.S. launched Operation Eagle Claw to

rescue the hostages. It was aborted after two helicopters
crashed, resulting in the deaths of eight U.S. servicemen.
The hostages were released on January 20, 1981, after
Ronald Reagans electoral victory over President Carter.
Wreckage

RH-53D Sea Stallion

helicopters

Released hostages

Cuban Revolution
USA

Mexico

Fidel Castro

The Cuban revolution of

January 1, 1959,
successfully overthrew the
government of U.S.-backed
dictator Fulgencio Batista.
Fidel Castro became
prime minister and later
communist dictator of
Cuba. Many Cubans fled to
the U.S.
Fidel Castro

Fulgencio Batista

Bay of Pigs
Cuba and the Soviet Union became
allies.
Communist Cuba was seen as a
threat to American security.
In 1960 Cuba nationalized all U.S.
businesses without compensation.
President Eisenhower authorized a
CIA-backed invasion of Cuba in 1961
using a Cuban exile army.
The failed plan became known as
the "Bay of Pigs."

Castro and Khrushchev

Cuba warplanes
destroyed U.S.
Ships

Conflict in the Dominican Republic

In late April 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered U.S.
Marines and army paratroopers into the Dominican Republic.
LBJ insisted that the operation was necessary to prevent the
establishment of another communist country, a "second
Cuba," in the Western Hemisphere.

Twenty-four American servicemen

were killed and 156 were wounded
during the intervention.