Vitamin

Vital = mutlak ada

Amin = ada gugus NH3

Di bagi 2
Larut dalam lemak
A,D, E dan K

Larut dalam air

C
Golongan vitamin B
Provitamin A (beta-caroten)

Masalah pada masyarakat :

Defisiensi = kekurangan
vitamin A

Vitamin A
Vitamin A has multiple functions, it is important for
growth and development, for the maintenance of
the immune system and good vision.
Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the
form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin
to form rhodopsin the light-absorbing molecule
color vision.[4]
Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as
an irreversibly oxidized form of retinol known as
retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like
growth factor for epithelial and other cells.[5]

 Pada Retina: retinal

retinol
opsin
Retinal
Rhodopsin
retinoic acid : bentuk lain vitamin A
pada embriologi dan pemeliharan
pertumbuhan

Vision
Gene transcription
Immune function
Embryonic development and reproduction
Bone metabolism
Haematopoiesis
Skin and cellular health
Antioxidant activity

Defisiensi vitamin A
Rabun senja : Nictalopia
Bitot's spots
Xerophthalmi

Sumber vitamin A

cod liver oil (30000 g)

liver
carrot (835 g 93%)
Broccoli
butter (684 g 76%)
kale (681 g 76%)
spinach (469 g 52%)
egg (140 g 16%)
papaya (55 g 6%)
mango (38 g 4%)
pea (38 g 4%)
broccoli (31 g 3%)
milk (28 g 3%)
tomatoes

Liver

Eye Anatomy - The Retina

The eyes retina is the inside back surface
and is often compared to camera film with
good reason. It is densely filled with lightsensitive cells that receive images brought
in by light rays. The cells are of two types:
Six to seven million cones which provide
color perception and sharp vision in bright
light;
75 to 150 million rods which provide
vision in dim light;

Deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency
Prevalence of vitamin A deficiency. Source: WHO
Vitamin A deficiency is common in developing
countries but rarely seen in developed
countries. Approximately 250,000 to 500,000
malnourished children in the developing world
go blind each year from a deficiency of vitamin
A.
Night blindness is one of the first signs of
vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A deficiency
contributes to blindness by making the cornea
very dry and damaging the retina and cornea.

 The Layer of Rods and Cones

Rods and cones are photoreceptors. The structure
and function of photoreceptors are described
later. The light-sensitive portions of these
photoreceptors are contained in the layer of rods
and cones. In most regions of the retina, the rods
outnumber the cones (there are approximately
100 million rods and 5 million cones in the human
retina). One exception to this rule is the region of
greatest visual acuity, the fovea (a depression in
the center of the macula).

 Retinol is one of the animal forms of vitamin A. It is a diterpenoid and an alcohol. It is convertible
to other forms of vitamin A, and the retinyl ester derivative of the alcohol serves as the storage
form of the vitamin in animals.
When converted to the retinal (retinaldehyde) form, vitamin A is essential for vision, and when
converted to retinoic acid is essential for skin health, teeth remineralization and bone growth.
These chemical compounds are collectively known as retinoids, and possess the structural motif of
all-trans retinol as a common feature in their structure. Structurally, all retinoids also possess a
-ionone ring and a polyunsaturated side chain, with either an alcohol, aldehyde, a carboxylic acid
group or an ester group. The side chain is composed of four isoprenoid units, with a series of
conjugated double bonds which may exist in trans- or cis-configuration.[1]
Retinol is produced in the body from the hydrolysis of retinyl esters, and from the reduction of
retinal. Retinol in turn is ingested in a precursor form; animal sources (liver and eggs) contain
retinyl esters, whereas plants (carrots, spinach) contain pro-vitamin A carotenoids (these may also
be considered simply vitamin A). Hydrolysis of retinyl esters results in retinol, while pro-vitamin A
carotenoids can be cleaved to produce retinal by carotene dioxygenase in the intestinal mucosa.
Retinal, also known as retinaldehyde, can be reversibly reduced to produce retinol or it can be
irreversibly oxidized to produce retinoic acid, which then cannot function as the vitamin in the eye.
Commercial production of retinol typically requires retinal synthesis through reduction of a
pentadiene derivative and subsequent acidification/hydrolysis of the resulting isomer to produce
retinol. Pure retinol is extremely sensitive to oxidization and is prepared and transported at low
temperatures and oxygen free atmospheres. When prepared as a dietary supplement, retinol is
stabilized as the ester derivatives retinyl acetate or retinyl palmitate.[2]

 Bitot's Spot in Vitamin A Deficiency

Xerophthalmia (i/zrflmi/; Greek for dry eyes,
from = , dry + , eye) is a
medical condition in which the eye fails to produce tears
. It may be caused by a deficiency in vitamin A and is
sometimes used to describe that lack, although there
may be other causes.
Xerophthalmia caused by a severe vitamin A deficiency
is described by pathologic dryness of the conjunctiva
and cornea. The conjunctiva becomes dry, thick and
wrinkled. If untreated, it can lead to corneal ulceration
and ultimately to blindness as a result of corneal
damage.

 Nyctalopia (from Greek -, nykt- "night"; , alaos "blind, not

seeing", and , ops "eye") also called "Night Blindness" is a condition
making it difficult or impossible to see in relatively low light. It is a
symptom of several eye diseases. Night blindness may exist from birth,
or be caused by injury or malnutrition (for example, a lack of vitamin A).
It can be described as insufficient adaptation to darkness.
The most common cause of nyctalopia is retinitis pigmentosa, a
disorder in which the rod cells in the retina gradually lose their ability to
respond to the light. Patients suffering from this genetic condition have
progressive nyctalopia and eventually their daytime vision may also be
affected. In X-linked congenital stationary night blindness , from birth
the rods either do not work at all, or work very little, but the condition
doesn't get worse. Another cause of night blindness is a deficiency of
retinol, or vitamin A, found in fish oils, liver and dairy products.
The opposite problem, the inability to see in bright light, is known as
hemeralopia and is much rarer.

 During the absorption process in the intestines, retinol is

incorporated into chylomicrons as the ester form, and it is
these particles that mediate transport to the liver. Liver cells (
hepatocytes) store vitamin A as the ester, and when retinol is
needed in other tissues, it is de-esterifed and released into the
blood as the alcohol. Retinol then attaches to a serum carrier,
retinol binding protein, for transport to target tissues. A binding
protein inside cells, cellular retinoic acid binding protein ,
serves to store and move retinoic acid intracellularly.
Carotenoid bioavailability ranges between 1/5 to 1/10 of
retinol's. Carotenoids are better absorbed when ingested as
part of a fatty meal. Also, the carotenoids in vegetables,
especially those with tough cell walls (e.g. carrots), are better
absorbed when these cell walls are broken up by cooking or
mincing.

Biosynthesis of retinol
Retinol is synthesized from the breakdown of -carotene.
First the -carotene 15-15-monooxygenase cleaves carotene at the central double bond, creating an epoxide.
This epoxide is then attacked by water creating two
hydroxyl groups in the center of the structure.
The cleavage occurs when these alcohols are reduced to
the aldehydes using NADH.
This compound is called retinal. Retinal is then reduced
to retinol by the enzyme retinol dehydrogenase. Retinol
dehydrogenase is an enzyme that is dependent on NADH.
[6]

Ujian blok
Peranan vitamin A pada penglihatan
Sumber vitmin A yang murah
-