Cytology, the

study of the structure and

function of cells

The human body contains both somatic and

sex cells

Histology is the science that

studies the microscopic structure of
normal tissues.

The cell theory states:

Cells

are the building blocks of all plants

and animals
Cells are produced by the division of
preexisting cells
Cells are the smallest units that perform all
vital physiological functions
Each cell maintains homeostasis at the
cellular level
Homeostasis

at higher levels reflects combined,

coordinated action of many cells

The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body

Figure 3.1

General Subdivisions of a Cell

A. Nucleus
(regulatory
center of the
cell)

C. Cytoplasm
(everything
between the
cell membrane
and the
nuclear
compartment)

B. Cell
Membrane
(selectively
permeable
boundary
between
the cell and
the
environment)
Organelles are individual
compartments in the cytoplasm

Cell Membrane

Cell membrane components

phospholipid bilayer
transmembrane (integral) and peripheral proteins
interior protein network elements of the cytoskeleton
cell surface markers glycocalyx (proteoglycans,
glycolipids, glycoproteins)

Fluid-mosaic model of membrane

structure

Plasma or Cell Membrane

OUTSIDE
LIPID BILAYER

INSIDE

Fluid Mosaic Model

of Membrane Structure
Membrane Proteins

Cholesterol Cytoplasm

Outer
Surface

Functions of the cell membrane

Selectively

isolates the cells

contents from the external
environment and serves as a barrier

Regulate

the exchange of substances

between the inside and outside of the
cell transport function

Receptor

function

The phospholipid bilayer is the fluid

portion of the membrane

Double

layer
Polar head group: hydrophilic exterior
Non-polar hydrocarbon tails: hydrophobic interior

Cholesterol molecules are part of

the lipid bilayer

Adds

strength
Adds flexibility
Affects fluidity

Membrane proteins:
Classified by position:
Integral

proteins
Peripheral proteins

Classified by function:
Anchoring proteins
Recognition proteins
Receptor proteins
Carrier proteins
Channels

Membrane proteins

Integral and peripheral proteins

Types of membrane proteins

functional classification

Transport

proteins

For

passage of materials through the

plasma membrane
Channel

Receptor

vs. carrier proteins

proteins

Bind

molecules and trigger cellular

responses
Example:

Recognition
Self

hormones

proteins

vs. non-self (glycoprotein-based)

recognition
Markers during development

2. Movement of substances across

membranes
Definitions
Concentration
Number

of molecules in a given volume

Gradient
Differences

space.

in concentration between two regions of

This

causes molecules to move from one region to the

other (if no barrier to movement)

Diffusion
Net

movement of molecules from regions of high

concentration to regions of low concentration
Considered

as movement down its concentration gradient

Diffusion of Dye in Water

Dispersing

Random
Dispersal

Time 0

Time 1

Time 2

Steep
Concentration
Gradient

Reduced
Concentration
Gradient

No
Concentration
Gradient

Passive and active transport

Passive

transport

Movement

of molecules down their

concentration gradients
Requires no net energy expenditure
The

Active

gradients themselves provide energy

transport

Movement

of molecules against their

concentration gradients
Requires energy!

Passive transport
1.
2.
3.
4.

Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration

Remember that no energy is required, and

molecules move down their concentration
gradients

Passive transport
1.

Simple diffusion

Molecules simply cross cell membrane on their own,

down their concentration gradients

Possible only for molecules that can cross the lipid

bilayer on their own

Lipid-soluble molecules

Very small molecules

Examples: ethyl alcohol, vitamin A, steroid hormones

Examples: water, carbon dioxide

Rate depends upon

Concentration gradient
Size
Lipid solubility

Passive transport
2.

Facilitated diffusion

Molecules move down their concentration

gradients (as for simple diffusion), but
Transport proteins assist these molecules in
crossing the membrane
No net energy expenditure! (This is a type
of diffusion)

Example: transport of glucose

Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a channel

Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a carrier protein
Diffusion
Channel
Protein

Molecule in
Transit

Diffusion
Gradient

(Outside
Cell)

Carrier protein
has binding site
for molecule

Molecule enters
binding site

(Inside Cell)

Carrier protein changes

shape, transporting
molecule across membrane

Carrier protein resumes

original shape

Facilitated
Facilitateddiffusion
diffusionisis
passive
passivediffusion
diffusionwith
with
the
thehelp
helpof
oftransport
transport
proteins
proteins

Passive transport
3.

Osmosis

Movement of water from a high [water] to an

area of low [water] concentration across a semipermeable membrane

Note here that water can pass through, but glucose

cannot

The effects of osmosis

Compare

solute and water concentrations

outside vs. inside the cell (sketches)

H2O

H2O

Active Transport
1.

Movement via active transport proteins

(sodium-potassium pump)

Remember that energy is required, and

molecules are moved against their
concentration gradients

Bulk (vesicular) transport

Exocytosis - movement of materials out of the cell by fusion of

vesicles with the plasma membrane

Example - export or removal of wastes in single-celled organisms

Example cells exporting proteins

Endocytosis Infolding of the plasma membrane to bring large

materials into the cell

Pinocytosis, "cell drinking" extra cellular fluid and materials

suspended in it (water and solutes) are enclosed in invaginating vesicle

Receptor-mediated endocytosis more specific with receptor binding

to molecules, bringing them in and concentrating into a coated pit

Used in digestive tract

The way insulin gets into your cells.

Phagocytosis "cell eating" brings large materials into a cell by

wrapping extensions of the plasma membrane around the materials and
fusing the extension together.

How the human immune system ingests whole bacteria or one-celled

creatures eat
pseudopodia false feet plasma membrane extensions

Bulk (vesicular) transport

1. Endocytosis
Three

types of endocytosis

Pinocytosis
cell

drinking
Extracellular fluid taken in
Receptor-mediated

endocytosis

Specific

for particular molecules

Molecules bind to receptors.
Receptor-molecule complex taken in
Phagocytosis
Large

particles engulfed

Mmm...yummybacteria!!

Help!Imtobebroken
downtomeremacro
molecules!!

Bulk (vesicular) transport

2. Exocytosis

3. Transcytosis

Transcytosis in endothelial cells of the

capillary
Canseethisphenomena
incontinuouscapillaries
Muscle,connectivetissue,
exocrineglandsandnervous
tissue

Transport
macromoleculesinboth
directions.
Pinocytoticvesiclescan
crosscellinabout
23minutes.

lumen

Tight Junctions
Seal

tissues and
prevent leaks
Link epithelial cells
together
Prevent things from
moving through the
intercellular space
Restrict migration of
proteins and
phospholipids

Tight junctions
Extracellular

surfaces of two adjacent

plasma membranes are joined
together so there is no extracellular
space between them
Occurs in a band around the entire cell

Belt desmosome
Zonula

adherens
Another belt around
the cell
Below the tight
junctions
An anchorage
junction
Associated with
actin filaments
Space between
membranes can be
seen

Desmosomes
Like

spot welds!

Dense

plaques with
fibers attachedAnchor cells together
from one side to the
other.

These

cells withstand
lots of abuse!

Spot Desmosomes
A region

between two cells where

membranes are separated by 20nm
Dense accumulation of protein at the
cytoplasmic surface of the membrane

Desmosomes, contd
Keratin

fibers extend
from the cytoplasmic
surface to other side of
cell to next desmosome
Holds adjacent cells
together in areas of
stretching
skin,

cardiac muscle

Hemidesmosome
Assymetrical

structures
A plate anchors the basal part of cell to the
basal lamina
This plate contains IFs called keratins or
tonofilaments
Membrane plaque linking hemidesmosome
to basal lamina via anchoring filaments
Contributes to overall stability of epithelia

Hemidesmosomes

Gap junctions
Protein

channels link the cytosols of cells

Passage

of small molecules and ions (Na +, K+)

Excludes large molecules
Transmits electrical activity between cardiac
and smooth muscle cells
Allows chemical messengers to cross from
one cell to another
Coordinates activities between cells

Gap junction connexons

A connexon

is a cylinder with a central

open pore
One gap junction connexon is made up
of six connexins
The pore is a hydrophilic channel
between two cytoplasms
Plasma membranes come within 2-4nm
of each other

Gap junctions

Put Them All Together

Cellular Junctions
Occludingjxns
zonulaadherens

maculaadherens