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2 Classical Encryption
2 Classical Encryption
Techniques
CSE 651: Introduction to
Network Security
Basic terminology
Plaintext: original message to be
encrypted
Ciphertext: the encrypted message
Enciphering or encryption: the process of
converting plaintext into ciphertext
Encryption algorithm: performs encryption
Two inputs: a plaintext and a secret key
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Ciphers
Symmetric cipher: same key used for
encryption and decryption
Block cipher: encrypts a block of plaintext at a
time (typically 64 or 128 bits)
Stream cipher: encrypts data one bit or one byte
at a time
Symmetric Encryption
or conventional / secret-key / single-key
sender and recipient share a common key
all classical encryption algorithms are
symmetric
The only type of ciphers prior to the
invention of asymmetric-key ciphers in
1970s
by far most widely used
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Symmetric Encryption
Mathematically:
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)
or
or
Y = E(K, X)
X = D(K, Y)
X = plaintext
Y = ciphertext
K = secret key
E = encryption algorithm
D = decryption algorithm
Both E and D are known to public
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Cryptanalysis
Objective: to recover the plaintext of a
ciphertext or, more typically, to recover the
secret key.
Kerkhoffs principle: the adversary knows all
details about a cryptosystem except the
secret key.
Two general approaches:
brute-force attack
non-brute-force attack (cryptanalytic attack)
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Brute-Force Attack
Try every key to decipher the ciphertext.
On average, need to try half of all possible keys
Time needed proportional to size of key space
KeySize(bits)
NumberofAlternative
Keys
Timerequiredat1
decryption/s
Timerequiredat106
decryptions/s
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232=4.3109
231s
=35.8minutes
2.15milliseconds
56
256=7.21016
255s
=1142years
10.01hours
128
2128=3.41038
2127s
=5.41024years
5.41018years
168
2168=3.71050
2167s
=5.91036years
5.91030years
26!=41026
21026s =6.41012years
6.4106years
26characters
(permutation)
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Cryptanalytic Attacks
May be classified by how much
information needed by the attacker:
Ciphertext-only attack
Known-plaintext attack
Chosen-plaintext attack
Chosen-ciphertext attack
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Ciphertext-only attack
Given: a ciphertext c
Q: what is the plaintext m?
An encryption scheme is completely
insecure if it cannot resist ciphertext-only
attacks.
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Known-plaintext attack
Given: (m1,c1), (m2,c2), , (mk,ck) and a
new ciphertext c.
Q: what is the plaintext of c?
Q: what is the secret key in use?
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Chosen-plaintext attack
Given: (m1,c1), (m2,c2), , (mk,ck), where
m1, m2, , mk are chosen by the
adversary; and a new ciphertext c.
Q: what is the plaintext of c, or what is the
secret key?
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Chosen-ciphertext attack
Given: (m1,c1), (m2,c2), , (mk,ck), where
c1, c2, , ck are chosen by the adversary;
and a new ciphertext c.
Q: what is the plaintext of c, or what is the
secret key?
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Classical Ciphers
Plaintext is viewed as a sequence of
elements (e.g., bits or characters)
Substitution cipher: replacing each element
of the plaintext with another element.
Transposition (or permutation) cipher:
rearranging the order of the elements of the
plaintext.
Product cipher: using multiple stages of
substitutions and transpositions
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Caesar Cipher
Earliest known substitution cipher
Invented by Julius Caesar
Each letter is replaced by the letter three
positions further down the alphabet.
Plain: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Cipher: D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C
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Caesar Cipher
Mathematically, map letters to numbers:
a,b,c,...,x,y,z
0,1,2,...,23,24,25
23
25
Use in Cryptanalysis
Key concept: monoalphabetic substitution does
not change relative letter frequencies
To attack, we
calculate letter frequencies for ciphertext
compare this distribution against the known
one
27
Example Cryptanalysis
Given ciphertext:
UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXAIZ
VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
F
W
Q
T
A
3.33
3.33
2.50
2.50
1.67
B
G
Y
I
J
1.67
1.67
1.67
0.83
0.83
C
K
L
N
R
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
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Playfair Cipher
Not even the large number of keys in a
monoalphabetic cipher provides security.
Use a 5 x 5 matrix.
Fill in letters of the key (w/o duplicates).
Fill the rest of matrix with other letters.
E.g., key = MONARCHY.
M
I/J
Z
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35
Vigenre Cipher
Simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
Consider the set of all Caesar ciphers:
{ Ca, Cb, Cc, ..., Cz }
Key: e.g. security
Encrypt each letter using Cs, Ce, Cc, Cu, Cr,
Ci, Ct, Cy in turn.
Repeat from start after Cy.
Decryption simply works in reverse.
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37
41
Date
Which rotors to use (there were 10 rotors)
Ring setting
Plugboard setting
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The Rotors
43
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Transposition Ciphers
Also called permutation ciphers.
Shuffle the plaintext, without altering the
actual letters used.
Example: Row Transposition Ciphers
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a t t a c k p
o s t p o n e
Plaintext:
d u n t i l t
w o a mx y z
Ciphertext:TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ
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Product Ciphers
Uses a sequence of substitutions and
transpositions
Harder to break than just substitutions or
transpositions
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Steganography
Hide a message in another message.
E.g., hide your plaintext in a graphic image
Each pixel has 3 bytes specifying the RGB color
The least significant bits of pixels can be
changed w/o greatly affecting the image quality
So can hide messages in these LSBs
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Summary
Have considered:
classical cipher techniques and terminology
monoalphabetic substitution ciphers
cryptanalysis using letter frequencies
Playfair cipher
polyalphabetic ciphers
transposition ciphers
product ciphers and rotor machines
stenography
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