Operating System Concepts

Introduction To Operating
System
Computer System
Hardware
Input
Units
CPU
Output
Units
Control
Unit
Processor
Software
Secondary
storage
Magnetic
Tapes
Cache
Memory
Compact
Disks
Application
Programs
Compilers &
Assemblers
Programming
Languages
Magnetic
Disks
Memory
RAM
Operating
System
User
ROM
Floppy
Disks
Hard
Disks
High
Level
Low
Level
Q: Explain what is meant by Application Programs?

Sol:
User
Application Programs
Software
Operating System
Hardware
Application programs
Are programs produced by programming companies to help computer
users to perform useful tasks.
Q: Draw a block diagram showing the computer internal

structure.
Sol:
Input
Units
Control
Unit
Instructions
Instructions
Data
Memory
Processor
(RAM)
Output
Units
Control
Signals
Results
Cache
Memory
Data
ALU
Store Results
Results
Or
Load date
Secondary
Storage
ROM
CPU
Q: Define the following:

RAM ROM Cache Memory
Sol:
RAM:
Random Access Memory

Volatile (lose contents when power is off).
Can be modified by the user.
ROM:
Read only Memory

Non Volatile.
Contains fixed programs used by the computer.
Cache Memory:
A memory inside the processor chip.

Used to store frequently used data.
Increases the processor speed.
Processor
Cache
Memor
y
ALU
Q: Write short notes about:

Secondary Storage Units
Sol:
Definition:
Secondary storage units are the units used to store data
permanently.
Secondary
Storage
Magnetic Disks Magnetic Tapes
Floppy Disks
Hard Disks
Compact Disks
Magnetic Tapes:
Used to store large volume of data in large computers like
mainframes for long time.

Consists of plastic film coated by magnetic material (iron
oxide).
Advantages:
Compact (can store huge amount of data).
Economical (low cost).
No loss of data.
Disadvantages:
Sequential storage.
Magnetic Disks:
A surface of metal (in the case of hard disk)
or plastic (in floppy disks) coated with
magnetic material.
It rotates with a high speed.
Track
Divided into tracks and sectors.
Sector
Compact Disks:
CD/ROM (Compact Disk/Read Only Memory).
A plastic surface coated by a reflective
material.
A laser beam is used to write on CD/ROM.
Can store up to 600 Mega byte.
Q: Define OS, then what are the different OS goals?

Sol:
Operating System (OS):
is the program running all the times on the computer to
communicate all computer components (usually called
Kernel).
OS does not perform a useful task by itself, but it creates a
suitable environment so that other programs can operate
efficiently.
OS Goals:
Convenient for the user.
Efficient for the system components.
Q: What are the different types of OS?

Sol:
Different Types of OS are:

1. Batch System.
2. Multi-Programming System.
3. Multi-Tasking (Time Sharing) System.
4. Multi-Processor (Parallel) System.
5. Network Operating Systems.
6. Real Time Systems.
Batch System:
Users send their jobs to the computer operator.
Operator organize jobs into a set of batches (each contains similar
jobs).
Each batch is run separately as a set of jobs.
Next batch
Batch 1
Operator
Batch 2
CPU
Batch 1
Job
Multi-Programming System:
A number of processes are in memory inside the ready queue
waiting for the CPU (there is one user).
Windows OS using this concept.
Ready
Queue
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Memory
Switching between
processes
CPU
Multi-Tasking (Time sharing) System:

Allow a number of users to share the CPU in the same time.
This concepts is used in the mainframe computers.
User 1
Ready Queue for user 1
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
User 2
Process 1
Process 2
CPU
Process 3
User 3
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Memory
Switching between
users processes
Multi-Processor System:
Is a system with more than one processor to maximize the system
speed.
CPU 1
User
Ready Queue
Process 1
Process 2
CPU 2
Process 3
CPU 3
Memory
Network System:
Systems that operate networks in order to achieve:
Resource sharing.
Computation speedup.
Load balancing.
Communication between hosts.
Star
Bus
Ring
Real Time System:

Systems that performs critical tasks.
Real Time
Systems
Hard Real Time Systems
Soft Real Time Systems
Hard real time systems: critical tasks must be performed

on time.
Soft real time systems: critical tasks gets priority over
Q: What are the different activates supported by modern OS?

Sol:
Different OS functions are:

1. Process Management.
2. Memory Management.
3. File Management.
4. Storage Management.
5. I/O Management.
6. Protection Management.
7. Networking Management.
Process
Management
Q: Define the following:

Process Resource
Sol:
Process: is a program in execution; it is an active entity in the memory
while the program is the passive copy in the hard disk.
Process 1
Program
Memory
Hard
Process 2
Disk
Resource: any things in the system that may be used by active

processes. They may be hardware (printers, tape drives, memory), or
software (files, databases).
Resource
Resource Types
Types
Preemptive
Resources
Non Preemptive
Resources
A resource that stops the current

process when a higher priority
process comes.
A resource that can not stop the current

process when a higher priority process
comes.
Ex: Memory.
Ex: CD recorder,
Q: Explain why? Memory is a preemptive recourse.

Sol:
Because
It allows a low priority process to swapped
out form it to the disk when a higher

priority process arrives and needs a larger
amount of memory than the available. The
low priority process can resume execution
later (swapped in again).
Assume a system with 32 kb memory size.
5kb are used for OS, 10 kb for the low priority process.
Hence, the available space is 17 kb.
A higher priority process arrives and needs 20 kb.
Swap in the high
priority process
high priority process

finishes execution
OS (5 kb)
Available
27 Kb
OS (5 kb)
High Priority
process (20
kb)
Disk
OS (5 kb)
Available
27 Kb
Available
7 Kb
Swap in the low priority process again to

resume execution
Swap out the low

priority process to
disk
OS (5 kb)
Low Priority
process (10
kb)
Available
17 Kb
High
Priority
20 Kb
Q: Explain why? CD recorder is nonpreemptive resource.

Sol:
Because: If a process has begun to burn a CDROM, suddenly taking the CD recorder away from
it and giving it to another process will result in a
bad CD.
Q: What are the different steps to utilize a

resource by a process?
Sol:
A process may utilize a resource in only the
following sequence as shown below:
Reques
t
Use
Releas
e
Q: Explain the main differences between a input

(job) and ready queues?
Sol:
-input queue: stores the programs that will be opened soon (located
at the disk)
- ready queue: contains the active process that are ready to be
Ready Queue
executed (located in the memory).
Process need to
be executed
(programs)
Q: Explain what is meant by process states, and then

draw the process state diagram.
Sol:
As process executes, it changes its state. The process state may be:
New: The process is being created.

Ready: The process is waiting for the processor.
Running: The process instructions are being executed.
Waiting: The process is waiting for an event to happen
(such as I/O completion).
Terminated: The process has finished execution.
The process state diagram is:
Dispatcher
Q: Explain why? Each process must have a process

control block (PCB) in memory.
Sol:
Because:
Process control block (PCB) is the way used to

represent the process in the operating system.
It contains information about the process such

as:
Process state (new, ready, )
Address of the next instruction to be executed
in the process.
Process priority.
Process assigned memory.
I/O information (such as I/O devices and
Q: Show graphically how OS uses the PCB to switch between active

processes
Sol:
When interrupt happened, OS saves the state of the current active process to
its PCB so it can continue correctly when it resumes its execution again.
To resume execution, OS reloads the process state from its PCB and continue
execution.
Q: Give a suitable definition for the "Context

Switch", and then explain why context switch is
a pure overhead?
Sol:
Context switch is the time needed by OS to
switch the processor from a process to another.

Context switch(Px Py) = TX + TY , where
TX : time needed to save the state of P x in PCBx

TY : time needed to load the state of P Y in PCBY
Context switch is a pure overhead because the
system does no useful work while switching.
Q: what is meant by Schedulers?, then discuss different

types of them?
Sol:
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) selects which
processes should be brought into the ready queue from
the job queue (determine the degree of multiprogramming)
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) selects which
process should be executed next and allocates CPU
Medium-term scheduler: swap out the process from
memory (ready queue) and swapped in again later (it

decrease the degree of multiprogramming).
Passive
Programs
Disk
Open
program
Memory
Long Term
Scheduler
Select a
process
from job to
ready queue
Job (input)
Queue
Swap a
process
from ready
to job queue
Medium Term
Scheduler
Short Term
Scheduler
Process
Process
Assign the
CPU to a
process
from ready
queue
CPU
CPU
Q: Explain why?
Long term scheduler increases the degree of
multiprogramming.
Medium term scheduler decreases the degree of
multiprogramming.
Sol
:
Degree
of multi-programming is the number of
processes that are placed in the ready queue waiting for
execution by the CPU.
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Process 4
Process 5
Memory
Degree of
Multi-Programming
Since Long term scheduler selects which processes to

brought to the ready queue, hence, it Decreases the
degree of multiprogramming.
Disk
Long Term
Scheduler
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Process 4
Process 5
Job Queue
Memory
Degree of
Degree of
Multi-Programming
Multi-Programming
Since Medium term scheduler picks some processes from

the ready queue and swap them out of memory, hence, it
decreases the degree of multiprogramming.
Disk
Medium Term
Scheduler
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Process 4
Process 5
Job Queue
Memory
Degree of
Degree of
Multi-Programming
Multi-Programming
CPU
Scheduling
((Ready
Ready Queue
Queue))
Q: Explain what is meant by CPU scheduling, and

then discuss the difference between loader and
dispatcher?
Sol:
Difference between loader and dispatcher:
Ready Queue
Process need to
be executed
CPU scheduling
CPU Scheduling is the method to select a
process from the ready queue to be executed by

CPU when ever the CPU becomes idle.
Some Examples:
First Come First Serviced (FCFS) scheduling.
Shortest Job First (SJF) scheduling.
FCFS
Priority scheduling.
CPU Scheduling
Algorithm
Ready
Queue
SJF
Priority
Process 1
Process 2
Process 3
Memory
Dispatcher
CPU
Q: Explain the main differences between

preemptive and non preemptive scheduling?
Sol:
Preemptive scheduling: allows releasing the
current executing process from CPU when

another process (which has a higher priority)
comes and need execution.
Non-preemptive scheduling: once the CPU has
been allocated to a process, the process keeps

the CPU until it release the CPU .
Preemptive
Scheduling
CPU
Non- Preemptive
Scheduling
CPU
Q: discuss in details, what is meant by the
following parameters:
CPU utilization.
System throughput.
Turnaround time.
Waiting time.
Response time.
Then discuss which parameter to maximize

and which one to minimize?
Sol:
CPU Utilization:
The percentage of times while CPU is busy to the
total time ( times CPU busy + times it is idle).

Hence, it measures the benefits from CPU.
CPU Utilization
Times CPU Busy

*100
Total Time
To maximize utilization, keep CPU as busy as
possible.
CPU utilization range from 40% (for lightly loaded
systems) to 90% (for heavily loaded) (Explain why?

CPU utilization can not reach 100%, because of the
context switch between active processes).
System Throughput:
The number of process that are completed per time unit
(hour)
Turnaround time:
For a particular process, it is the total time needed for
process execution (from the time of submission to the

time of completion).
It is the sum of process execution time and its waiting
times (to get memory, perform I/O, .).
Waiting time:
The waiting time for a specific process is the sum of all
periods it spends waiting in the ready queue.
Response time.
It is the time from the submission of a process until the
first response is produced (the time the process takes to

start responding).
It is desirable to:
Maximize:
CPU utilization.
System throughput.
Minimize:
Turnaround time.
Waiting time.
Response time.
First Come First Serviced (FCFS) algorithm

The process that comes first will be
executed first.
Not preemptive.
Ready queue
FCFS Scheduling
CPU
Consider the following set of processes, with the length of

the CPU burst (Execution) time given in milliseconds:
The processes arrive in the order
11
P1, P2, P3. All at time 0.
22
33
Process
Burst Time
P1
24
P2
P3
Gant chart:
waiting times and turnaround times for each process

are:
Process
P1
P2
P3
Waiting Time (WT)
24
27
Turnaround Time (TAT)
24
27
30
Hence, average waiting time= (0+24+27)/3=17

milliseconds
+
Execution
Time
Repeat the previous example, assuming that the processes

arrive in the order P2, P3, P1. All at time 0.
33
11
Process
Burst Time
P1
24
P2
P3
22
Gant chart:

are:
Process
P1
P2
P3
Waiting Time (WT)
30
Hence, average waiting time= (6+0+3)/3=3 milliseconds
Q: Explain why? FCFS CPU scheduling

algorithm introduces a long average waiting
time?
Sol:
Because:
it suffers from Convoy effect, hence, all other
processes must wait for the big process to execute if

this big process comes first.
This results in a long waiting time for small
processes, and accordingly increases the average

waiting time.
Shortest-Job-First (SJF) scheduling
When CPU is available, it will be assigned to

the process with the smallest CPU burst (non
preemptive).
If two processes have the same next CPU
burst, FCFS is used.
SJF Scheduling
10
18
10
18
Note: numbers indicates the process execution time
CPU

the CPU burst time given in milliseconds:
P1, P2, P3, P4. All at time 0.
Process
Burst Time
P1
P2
P3
P4
1. Using FCFS
Gant chart:

are:
Process
P1
P2
P3
P4
Waiting Time (WT)
14
21
14
21
24
Hence, average waiting time= (0+6+14+21)/4=10.25

milliseconds
2. Using SJF
Burst Time
P1
P2
P3
P4
Gant chart:
waiting times and turnaround times for each process are:

Process
Process
P1
P2
P3
P4
Waiting Time (WT)
16
24
16
Hence, average waiting time= (3+16+9+0)/4=7

milliseconds
Q: Explain why? SJF CPU scheduling algorithm introduces the

minimum average waiting time for a set of processes? Give an
example.
Sol:
Because: by moving a short process before a long one, the waiting
time of the short process decreases more than it increases the
waiting time of the long process. Hence, the average waiting
time decreases.
decreases
Example: assuming two processes P1 and P2

Process
Burst Time
P1
30
P2
Using FCFS
P1
0
Using SJF
P2
30
32
P2
0
P1
2
32
Waiting time(P1)=0
Waiting time(P1)=2
Waiting time(P2)=30
Waiting time(P2)=0
Average waiting time=(0+30)/2=15
Average waiting time=(0+2)/2=1
Shortest-Remaining-Time-First (SRTF)
It is a preemptive version of the Shortest Job
First .
It allows a new process to gain the processor
if its execution time less than the remaining
time of the currently processing one.
SRTF Scheduling
2
10
3
4
CPU

Process
Burst Time
Arrival Time
P2
P3
P4

P1
P1, P2, P3, P4. as shown in table.
1. Using SJF
Gant chart:

are:
Process
P1
P2
P3
P4
Waiting Time (WT)
10
11

milliseconds
2. Using SRTF
Burst Time
Arrival Time
P1
P2
P3
P4
Gant chart:

Process
Process
P1
P2
P3
P4
Waiting Time (WT)
16

milliseconds
Priority scheduling
A priority number (integer) is associated
with each process
The CPU is allocated to the process with the
highest priority (smallest integer). There are
two types:
Preemptive
nonpreemptive
Priority Scheduling
10
18
10
18
Note: numbers indicates the process priority
CPU
Problems with Priority scheduling

Problem Starvation (infinite blocking) low
priority processes may never execute

Solution Aging as time progresses
increase the priority of the process
Very lowVery
priority
low process
priority process
26
28
Starvation
Aging
30
8

P1, P2, P3, P4, P5. All at time 0 .
1. Using priority scheduling

Gant chart:
Burst Time
priority
P1
10
P2
P3
P4
P5

are:
Process
Process
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
Waiting Time (WT)
16
18
16
18
19
Hence, average waiting time= (6+0+16+18+1)/5=8.2

milliseconds
Round Robin scheduling
Allocate the CPU for one Quantum time (also

called time slice) Q to each process in the
ready queue.
This scheme is repeated until all processes
are finished.
A new process is added to the end of the
ready queue.
Round Roben Scheduling
CPU
Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the

CPU burst time given in milliseconds:
P1, P2, P3. All at time 0.
use RR scheduling with Q=2 and Q=4
RR with Q=4
Process
Burst Time
P1
24
P2
P3
Gant chart:

Process
P1
P2
P3
Waiting Time (WT)
30
10
Hence, average waiting time= (6+4+7)/3=5.66 milliseconds
RR with Q=2
Process
Burst Time
P1
24
P2
P3
Gant chart:

Process
P1
P2
P3
Waiting Time (WT)
30
10
Hence, average waiting time= (6+6+7)/3=6.33

milliseconds
Explain why? If the quantum time decrease,

this will slow down the execution of the
processes.
Sol:
Because decreasing the quantum time will
increase the context switch (the time

needed by the processor to switch between
the processes in the ready queue) which will
increase the time needed to finish the
execution of the active processes, hence,
this slow down the system.
Multi-level queuing scheduling

There are two types:
Without feedback: processes can not move between
queues.
With feedback: processes can move between queues.
Multi-level queuing without feedback:

Divide ready queue into several queues.
Each queue has specific priority and its own scheduling algorithm (FCFS, ).
High priority Queue
Low priority Queue
Multi-level queuing with feedback:

Divide ready queue into several queues.
Each queue has specific Quantum time as shown in
figure.
Allow processes to move between queues.
Queue 0
Queue 1
Queue 2
Deadlock
Q: Give a suitable definition for the Deadlock problem.

Sol:
Solution:
Deadlock:
A set of blocked processes, each:

11 holding a resource
22 and waiting to use a resource held by another process in the set.
Give me your
recourse
Resource
Process A
Deadlock
Give me your
recourse first
Process B
Resource
Hence, blocked processes will never change state (Explain why?) because the
resource it has requested is held by another waiting process.
Deadlock
System Breakdown
Q: Discuss briefly the different deadlock conditions.

Sol:
Deadlock arises if four conditions hold simultaneously:
Deadlock conditions
Mutual
Exclusion
Circular
wait
Hold and
wait
No preemption
11
Mutual
Exclusion
only one process can use a

resource at a time.
22 Wait
Hold and
A process holding at least one resource is

waiting for additional resource held by another
processes
No Preemption
33
A resource is released only by the
process holding it after it completed
its task
44
44
Circular Wait
A set of processes each waits for another one

in a circular fashion.
Note: the four conditions must occur to have a deadlock. If one condition is
absent, a deadlock may not exist.
Circular
wait
There exists a set {P0, P1, P2, .., Pn} of waiting processes such that:
P0 waiting for a resource held by P1.
P0
Pn
P1
Circular
Wait
P2
P3
P4
Pn waiting for a resource held by P0.
Deadlock Modeling
(Resource Allocation Graph)
In order to solve the deadlock problem, we must find a method to
express it.
This can be achieved using resource allocation graph.
Resource Allocation Graph
it is a graph expressing:
- All system active processes.
- Available system resources .
- Interconnections between active processes and system resources.
Contents of Resource Allocation Graph
Process
Resource
P (Process Set) set of processes in the system

P = {P1, P2, P3, ., Pn}
R (Resource Set) set of Resource types in the system
R = {R1, R2, R3, ., Rm}
Edge
Pi
Rj
( Request edge )
Process Pi requests an instance of
resource Rj
Rj
( Assignment edge )
An instance of Resource Rj is
assigned to Process Pi
E (Edge Set) set of all edges in Resource Allocation Graph.

E = {Pn Rm, Rx Py, .. }
Pi
Example:
11
Resource instances:
One instance of R1 and R3.
Two instances of R2.
ThreeP,
instances
R4.
The sets
R, andofE:
22
Processes States:
P =Process
Waiting
{ P1, P2, P3Holding
}
of R2
Instance of R1
R = {P1R1, RInstance
2, R3, R4 }
Instance of R1 and R2
Instance of R3
E = {P2
P1R1, P2R3, R1P2, R2P2,
Instance of R3
------R PP3,R P }
2
Q: Explain why: Although the graph contains a cycle, the system may
not in a deadlock state.
Sol:
Case 1: The system has one instance per resource type
If a cycle exists, the system in a deadlock state.
Each process involved in the cycle is deadlocked.

P1
R2
Cycle
Cycle:
Cycle
R1
P1 R1 P2 R2
(Deadlock)
P2
As show, no chance to break the cycle

because:
No process can finish execution.
No way to free a resource.
Case 2: The system has more than one instance per resource type
If a cycle exists, the system may or may not be in a deadlock state.
Ex 1: a cycle with deadlock:

Two Cycles exists:
exists
P1 R1 P2 R3 P3 R2
P2 R3 P3 R2
As show, P1, P2, and P3 are deadlocked
Ex 2: a cycle without deadlock:
Cycle:
Cycle
P1 R1 P3 R2
There is no deadlock because:
P4 may release its instance of R2.
This resource can be then allocated to

P3 which breaking the cycle.
Also P2 may release its instance of

R1.
This resource can be allocated to P1.
Deadlock Avoidance
Q: Describe in details the basic rules used for deadlock avoidance .
Sol:
Examines the system state so that:
System state
Safe
No deadlock
Unsafe
Possibility of deadlock
Avoidance ensure that a system will never
enter an unsafe state.
System in safe state if there exists a safe sequence of all

processes
<P1, P2, P3, P4, .., Pn-1, Pn>

Can be executed by
Can be executed by
Can be executed by
11 it holds
resources
+
22
systems
available resources.
11
resources it holds
+
systems22
+
Resources 3held
by P1
3
11
resources it holds
+
systems22
+
Resources 3held
by P1, P2
3
Avoidance Algorithms
Resource Allocation Graph Algorithm
11 Claim edge Pi ---> Rj indicated that process P j
may request resource Rj in future;

represented by a dashed line.
22
Claim edge converts to request edge when a
process requests a resource.
Request edge converted to an assignment
edge when the resource is allocated to the

process.
Claim edge Request edge Assignment edge
Assignment
Edge
Request Edge
Claim Edge
Suppose that process Pi requests a resource Rj

The request can be granted only if converting the
request edge to an assignment edge does not result in

a cycle in the resource allocation graph
Case Study: consider the following resource allocation
graph:
Suppose that
P2 requests R2
Although R2 is free, we can not allocate it to P2 since this creates a cycle
Cycle
Consider the following Resource allocation graph
R1
R2
P1
P3
R3
R4
P2
Is the system at safe state? What is the safe sequence? (if

exists).
Assume at T1, P3 requests R2, is it reasonable to grant this
request?
R1
R2
P1
P3
R3
R4
P2
Steps:
1. Find the Available Resources.
2. Construct the table:
Process
3. Find the safe sequence.
Max. Need
Hold
R1
R2
P1
P3
R3
R4
P2
Available Resources: R2
Process
Max. Need
Hold
P1
R1, R2, R3
R1, R3
P2
R3, R4
----
P3
R1, R2, R3, R4
R4
Safe sequence: <P1, P3, P2> so system in safe state.
R1
cycle
R2
P1
P3
R3
R4
P2
At T1: (P3 requests R2)

It is not reasonable to grant the request because system will
be in unsafe state (because this may result in a future cycle if
P1 requests R2).
Recovery From Deadlock
Terminate deadlocked
processes
Terminate all deadlocked

processes
Terminate one by one

Until deadlock eliminated
Free some
Resources
Free some resources

from the deadlocked processes.
Give those resources to other
processes until deadlock
eliminated
Memory Management
Techniques
Q: explain what is meant by memory management, then

discuss why to manage memory?
Sol:
Ready Queue
Process need
to be
executed
Memory management is how to organize active processes (processes

currently in the ready queue) so that:
1. Processes can be easily reached.
2. Maximize memory space utilization.
Q: show how a loader stores an executable file into the

memory assuming:
File of Size =20 memory words (instructions and data).
Using Contiguous allocation method.
Repeat the problem three different times using:
First fit.
Best fit.
Worst Fit.
Sol:
Executable file
(Size =20
memory
words)
?
Loader
Memory
loader
1.
contiguous allocation (
) block
:
) hole First Fit :
. (
) Best Fit :
. (
. Worst Fit :
.
Limit word Base Register
. register

physical. logical
Using First Fit

Base
Start
address of
process
Legal range
1040
20
Limit
Memory
0
OS
999
1000
1010
1040
Process
1060
1070
Executable file
(Size =20
memory
words)
Process
Process
1100
1125
Process
1150
Loader
1200
Process
1250
1255
Memory
Using Best Fit

Base
Start
address of
process
Legal range
OS
1000
1100
1010
20
1040
Process
Limit
1070
Executable file
(Size =20
memory
words)
1100
Process
Process
1120
1125
Process
1150
Loader
1200
1250
1255
Process
Memory
Using Worst Fit

Base
Start
address of
process
Legal range
OS
1000
1150
1010
20
1040
Process
Limit
1070
Executable file
(Size =20
memory
words)
Process
1100
1125
1150
Loader
Process
Process
1170
1200
1250
1255
Process
Q: Explain what is meant by Bootstrapping, then what is the

difference between Loader and Bootstrap Loader?
Sol:
Bootstrapping
Bootstrap program
ROM
Bootstrap Loader
.
ROM ( )
Bootstrap Program .
Bootstrap Program .
Bootstrap loader
Actions taken when a computer is first powered on until it is ready to be
used .
Computer reads a program from a ROM ( Read Only Memory) which:

Is installed by the manufacturer.
Contains bootstrap program and some other routines that controls
hardware (BIOS)
. Loader
. loader
:
ROM Bootstrap loader Loaders
. 0 Loader . Bootstrap program
. Absolute Loader loader
Loader
A part or OS.
Perform loading and relocation for users programs.
Bootstrap Loader
An absolute loader.
Executed when a computer is turned on or restarted.
Loads the first program to be run by the computer (usually an OS).
loads at address 0 in the memory (so that it is an absolute loader).
Q: Explain why? The bootstrap loader is an absolute (Simple) loader?

Sol:
Assuming OS requires 1000 words (from 0 to 999).
As shown, the range of the logical address (in the executable copy of OS) in the
disk is the same of the physical address range in memory.
So, no relocation.
Disk
Range of physical
addresses
999
OS
OS
999
No Relocation
Memory
Range of logical
addresses
Bootstrap
Loader
Q: Explain in details how to manage memory in multi-programming

environment?
Sol:
Memory Management In
multi-programming environment
Paging
Swapping
Contagious allocation
Swapping:
Q: Explain what is meant by swapping, Give some examples for swapping.
Sol:
A process can be swapped out of memory to disk, and then brought back into
memory for continued execution.
Ex1:
Multi-programming environment with priority scheduling
Assume a system with 32 kb memory size.

5kb are used for OS, 10 kb for the low priority process.
Hence, the available space is 17 kb.
A higher priority process arrives and needs 20 kb.
high priority process
finishes execution
OS (5 kb)
Available
27 Kb
Swap in the high

priority process
OS (5 kb)
High Priority
process (20
kb)
Disk
OS (5 kb)
Available
27 Kb
Available
7 Kb
Swap in the low priority process again to

resume execution
Swap out the

low priority
process to disk
OS (5 kb)
Low Priority
process (10
kb)
Available
17 Kb
High
Priority
20 Kb
Contiguous Allocation
Q: Explain what is meant by contiguous allocation, what are its different
types?
Sol:
In contiguous allocation, each process is contained in a single
contiguous section of memory.

.
Methods for Contiguous

Allocation
Simple
Method
General
Method
Simple Method
Divide memory into several fixed-sized partitions.

Each partition contains one process.
Degree of multiprogramming is bound by the number of partitions.
When a partition is free, a process is selected from the input queue and is
loaded into the free partition.
When the process terminates, the partition becomes available for another
process.
its no longer used (Explain why?) because it has various drawbacks like:
1. Degree of multiprogramming is bounded by the number of
partions.
2. Internal fragmentations.
Assuming a memory of 30 KB divided into three partitions as following:
Input Queue
(in the disk)
KB 4
KB 8
KB 9
Internal
Fragmentation
KB 7
Process 1
(7 KB)
Process 2
(9 KB)
Process 3
(8 KB)
10
KB
10
KB
10
KB
As shown
This method suffers from internal fragmentations.
The degree of multiprogramming is bounded to 3 although it can be
4.
General Method
Initially, all memory is available for user processes, and is considered as
one large block of available memory.
When a process arrives and needs memory, we search for a hole large
enough for this process using.
First Fit
Best Fit
Worst Fit
If we find one, we allocate only as much memory as is needed, keeping

the rest available to satisfy future requests.
There are three different methods to find the suitable hole for
a process?:
First fit: allocate the first hole that is big enough (fastest
method).
Best fit: allocate the smallest hole that is big enough
(produces the smallest leftover hole).
Worst fit: allocate the largest hole (produces the largest
leftover hole which may be more useful than the smaller
leftover hole from a best-fit approach.
OS
Input Queue
(in the disk)
KB 4
KB 8
KB 9
KB 7
Process 4
Process 1
(4 KB)
(7 KB)
Process 5
(9
KB) 2
Process
(9 KB)
Process 3
(8 KB)
As shown:
The degree of multiprogramming changing according to the number
of processes in the memory (in ready queue).
After a period of time External Fragmentations appear
OS
Process 4
Input Queue
(in the disk)
KB 4
KB 8
KB 9
KB 7
Process 2
Process 3
Process 9
Process 20
As shown:
This method suffers from external Fragmentations.
External
Fragmentations
Compaction
OS
Process 4
Process 4
Input Queue
(in the disk)
KB 4
KB 8
KB 9
KB 7
Process 2
Process 2
Process 3
Process 3
Process 9
Process 9
Process 20
Process 20
A new hole to store a

new process
Compaction:
Is a movement of the memory contents to place all free memory in a one large block
sufficient to store new process.
It is a solution for the external fragmentation but it is expensive and is not always
possible.
Paging
Paging is a memory-management scheme that permits the physicaladdress space of a process to be noncontiguous.
it is commonly used in most operating systems.
Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames.
Divide Process into blocks of same size called pages.
Use a page table which contains base address of each page in physical
memory.
Example
Page
number
0
Process
P
A process P is divided into 4 pages.
Page
number
Frame
number
1
2
3
The process will be loaded into 4 frames.

The page number is used as index to the page table.
The page table contains the frame number for each page.
Paging Example
32-byte memory, each memory word of size =1 byte (can store only one
character), the size of page (and frame also)= 4-byte.
Show how to store 4 pages process into memory using a page table.
according to your page table, what are the physical addresses
corresponding to the logical addresses 4 and 13.
Sol:
Memory size=32 Byte =32 words.
Page size = Frame size = 4 bytes =4 words.
Number of Frames = 32/4 = 8 Frames (addressed from 0 7)
Logical address
4 Page
process
Page 0 Contents
Physical address
Page 0
Frame
0
Page 1
Frame
1
Page 2
Frame
2
Page 3
Frame
3
Frame
4
Frame
5
Frame
6
Frame
7
Advantages of paging:
1.
2.
No external fragmentation.
Allow the process components to be noncontiguous.
Problems in paging:
1. A possibility of internal fragmentations that can not be used.
Q: Explain when you have internal fragmentations when using the paging
technique.
Sol:
when the contents of the last page of the process is less than the frame
size, then the remaining part of the frame will be an internal
fragmentations that can not be used.
Any Questions?

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Operating System Concepts

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Introduction To Operating

Q: Explain what is meant by Application Programs?

Q: Draw a block diagram showing the computer internal

Q: Define the following:

Random Access Memory

Read only Memory

A memory inside the processor chip.

Q: Write short notes about:

mainframes for long time.

Q: Define OS, then what are the different OS goals?

Q: What are the different types of OS?

Different Types of OS are:

Multi-Tasking (Time sharing) System:

Ready Queue for user 1

Ready Queue for user 2

Ready Queue for user 3

Real Time System:

Hard Real Time Systems

Soft Real Time Systems

Hard real time systems: critical tasks must be performed

Q: What are the different activates supported by modern OS?

Different OS functions are:

Q: Define the following:

Resource: any things in the system that may be used by active

A resource that stops the current

A resource that can not stop the current

Q: Explain why? Memory is a preemptive recourse.

out form it to the disk when a higher

Assume a system with 32 kb memory size.

high priority process

Swap in the low priority process again to

Swap out the low

Q: Explain why? CD recorder is nonpreemptive resource.

Q: What are the different steps to utilize a

Q: Explain the main differences between a input

Q: Explain what is meant by process states, and then

New: The process is being created.

The process state diagram is:

Q: Explain why? Each process must have a process

Process control block (PCB) is the way used to

It contains information about the process such

Q: Show graphically how OS uses the PCB to switch between active

Q: Give a suitable definition for the "Context

Context switch(Px Py) = TX + TY , where

TX : time needed to save the state of P x in PCBx

system does no useful work while switching.

Q: what is meant by Schedulers?, then discuss different

process should be executed next and allocates CPU

Medium-term scheduler: swap out the process from

memory (ready queue) and swapped in again later (it

Since Long term scheduler selects which processes to

Since Medium term scheduler picks some processes from

Q: Explain what is meant by CPU scheduling, and

CPU Scheduling is the method to select a

process from the ready queue to be executed by

Q: Explain the main differences between

current executing process from CPU when

Non-preemptive scheduling: once the CPU has

been allocated to a process, the process keeps

Q: discuss in details, what is meant by the

Then discuss which parameter to maximize

total time ( times CPU busy + times it is idle).

Times CPU Busy

To maximize utilization, keep CPU as busy as