Dynamics and Controls Related Knowledge

Dynamics and Controls Related Knowledge
4. Dynamics and Controls Related Knowledge

Important Issues:
Laplace Transform and Transfer Functions

Block Diagrams
First Order System and Second Order System
Relationship Between Pole Location and Transient Performance
Root Locus Plot
Bode Diagram
Reference Books:
K. OGATA, SYSTEM DYNAMICS, THIRD EDITION, PRENTICE
HALL.
K. OGATA, MODERN CONTROL ENGINEERING, FOURTH
EDITION, PRENTICE HALL.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dr. Song
Laplace Transform
Definition:
L[ f (t )] F ( s ) e
0
st
dt[ f (t )]
st
f (t )e dt
Commonly Used Laplace Transforms (LT):

L[Unit Impulse (t )] 1
1
L[Unit Step]
s
1
L[t ] 2
s
t n 1
1
L
n , n 1, 2,3........
s
( n 1)!
1
L[e at ]
sa
1
L[te at ]
( s a)2
L[sin t ] 2
s 2
s
L[cos t ] 2
s 2
Dr. Song
Real Differentiation Theorem

d
f (t ) sF ( s ) f (0)
dt
d2
L 2 f (t ) s 2 F ( s ) sf (0) f (0)
dt
The Laplace variable s can be considered as a differential operator, s

and
1 t
dt
s 0
d
dt
as the integral operator .
Final - value Theorem

lim f (t ) lim sF (s )
s 0
eg , F ( s)
2
s ( s 2 4s 3)
s
2
2
s 0 s ( s 2 4s 3) 3
, lim f (t ) lim
t
Dr. Song
Transfer Function
For a linear, time invariant, differential system

Transfer function = G(s) =
L[Output ]
L[ Input ] zero initial conditions
Y ( s ) b0 s m b1s m 1 ...... bm 1s bm
X ( s ) a0 s n a1s n 1 ...... an 1s an
eg : G ( s )
( s 3)
( s 1)( s 2)
Poles: s = -1, s = -2 and zero : s = -3

If s ,
G(s)
s 1
0.
s.s s
So there is a zero at .
Dr. Song
Transfer Function of a Commonly Used Mechanical System
A Spring-Mass-Damper System
M x kx B x f (t )
Assume zero initial conditions and apply LT
Ms 2 X ( s ) BsX ( s ) kX ( s ) F ( s )
X (s)
1
F ( s ) Ms 2 Bs k
Spring,
k
f(t): Input
M
x(t):
Output
Dr. Song
Solving an ODE Using LT & ILT

d2y
Inverse Laplace Transform (ILT) gives,
dy
3 y 2r (t )
2
dt
dt
dy
ICs : y (0) 1, (0) 0
dt
r (t ) 1, t 0;
4
3 t 1 3t
e e
2
2
y (t )
2
t 1 3t
1
e
3
3
and the steady state response is,
LT of the given differential equation gives,

2
[ s Y ( s) sY (0)] 4[ sY ( s ) y (0)] 3Y ( s) 2 R( s)
Since R ( s)
1
s
2
3
and y(0) = 1, we have,
( s 4)
Y (s)
lim y (t )
( s 2 4 s 3)
2
s( s 2 4 s 3)
Partial Fraction expansion yields,

3/ 2
1/ 2
( s 1) ( s 3)
Y (s)
1
1/ 3
2/3
( s 1) ( s 3)
s
Y1 ( s ) Y2 ( s ) Y3 ( s )
Dr. Song
Block Diagrams
An Open Loop System

G(s)
C (s)
R(s)
A Closed Loop System
R(s)
G(s)
E(s)
R(s)
+_
C ( s) G ( s) E ( s)
G ( s ) [ R( s ) - H ( s )C ( s )]
G ( s ) R( s ) - G ( s) H ( s) C ( s)
C(s)
C(s)
G(s)
H(s)
C ( s ) [1 G ( s) H ( s)] G ( s ) R( s)
C (s)
G ( s)
R( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s)
Dr. Song
Block Diagram Algebraic Rules
Dr. Song
First Order System: Modeling
A Thermal System
C: thermal capacitance of the thermometer

R: thermal resistance = 1/k
k: thermal conductivity or convection coefficients
C d q dt
Heat flow rate:
RC Circuit
V2
LT with zero IC,
RC s ( s ) ( s ) b ( s )
iR V2 V1
V1
d b
dt
R
b
R
d
RC
b
dt
= ambient temperature
dQ
i
, Q CV2
dt
dV
i C 2
dt
dV
RC 2 V2 V1`
dt
Dr. Song
( s )
1
b ( s) RCs 1
LT with zero IC,
RCsV2 ( s ) V2 ( s ) V1 ( s )
V2 ( s)
1
V1 ( s ) RCs 1
First Order System: Responses

1
Ts 1
R(s)
C(s)
T RC
C (s)
1
R( s) Ts 1
1
C (s)
R(s)
Ts 1
Root to Characteristic Equation or Pole:
One real pole
1 1
Ts 1 s
1
T

(Partial fraction expansion)
s Ts 1
1
1

s s (1/ T )
C (s)
ILT (Inverse Laplace Transform),

c (t ) 1 e t / T
1 e s1t
R( s) 1
1
Ts 1
1/ T
s (1/ T )
ILT (Inverse Laplace Transform),

1 t / T
e
T
1
e s1t
T
c(t )
Dr. Song
1
T
re
Unit Impulse Response:

C (s)
for t 0
s1
im
Unit Step Response:

1
R( s)
s
Ts 1 0
Characteristic Equation:
for t 0
10
First Order System: Responses (cont)

c(t )
for t 0
1 t / T
e
T
for t 0
Unit Step Response of a First Order System

5%
13.5%
36.8%
c(t ) 1 et / T
Unit Impulse Response of a First Order System

Dr. Song
11

1st order System Impulse Response
1
T
T: Time Constant
or,
Time Constant =
System is unstable if the pole is on the RHS of the s-plane.

System is stable if the pole is on the LHS of the s-plane.
The less the time constant, the faster the systems transient response.
The further the pole is away from the imaginary axis, the faster the systems transient response is.
Dr. Song
12
2nd Order System: Modeling

A Rotational System with Torsional Spring and Viscous Friction
k
Viscous friction
coefficient, B
Output
C(s)
Input
R(s)
Undamped natural frequency:

Damping ratio:
or
B
2 Jk
s 2 2 n s n2 0
The roots or the poles: three different situations.
0 1,
n2
C ( s)
R( s ) s 2 2 n s n2
k
J
Transfer Function
C ( s)
k
2
R ( s ) Js Bs k
Dr. Song
a pair of imaginary roots.
1,
a pair of distinct real roots.
1,
a pair of double real roots.
13
2nd Order System: Unit Step Response

1. Underdamped Case (0 1)
Poles: s1,2 n j d
d n 1 2
A pair of imaginary roots.

im
n2
C ( s)
R ( s ) s n j d s n j d
Unit Step Input:
R(s)
s n j d
1
s
- n
x
Using Partial Fraction Expansion and ILT, we have:
c (t ) 1 e nt (cos d t
sin d t )
Time constant,
Dr. Song
re
cos =
1
n
14
2nd Order System: Unit Step Response (cont)

2. Critically Damped Case ( 1)
( 1)
3. Overdamped Case
Poles: s1,2 n
Poles: two distinct real poles
n2
C (s)
R( s) (s n )2
s1 n n 2 1
Unit Step Input:
s2 n n 2 1
R( s )
n2
C (s)
R ( s ) s s1 s s2
1
s
c (t ) 1 e nt (1 nt )
xx
1
s
R( s)
Unit Step Input:
im
e s1t e s2t
c(t ) 1

2 s1
s2
2 1
im
o
re
A pair of double real roots.
o
Two distinct real poles
Dr. Song
re
15
The Effect of Damping Ratio on a 2nd-Order System
Unit Step Response of a 2nd-order System (2D)
The less the damping ratio, the more the

system oscillates.
The less the damping ratio, the faster the
system responds.
No oscillations when 1
Unit Step Response of a 2nd-order System (3D)
Dr. Song
16

2nd order System Impulse Response
System is unstable if the there is a

pole is on the RHS of the s-plane.
System is stable if all the poles are
on the LHS of the s-plane.
The less the time constant, the
faster the systems transient
response.
The further the pole is away from
the imaginary axis, the faster the
systems transient response is.
Natural
frequenc
y
increases
Damping ratio increases
Time constant decreases
Dr. Song
17
Second Order System: Some Important Loci
Important
Loci of Constant Damping Ratio
Loci of Constant Undamped Natural Frequency

im
re

Loci of Constant Time Constant
Loci of Constant Damped Natural Frequency

Dr. Song
18
Performance Specifications of a 2nd-order System
Dr. Song
19
Experimental determination of Damping Ratio

Flexible Beam
Piezo Patches
Logarithmic Decrement formula:
Function Generator
Oscilloscope
1
x1
2
4
ln x
n
Power Amplifier
PC with data
acquisition and real
time control system
8
x1
Piezo Sensor Output(V)
1
x1
ln
n 1
xn
2
If 32 cycles ( n 32 ) is chosen, it can be easily

determined from the figure that x1 6.3
(at t1 0.365 second) and x n 0.60 (at t n 19.66 second).
By using the log decrement formula, the damping
ratio can be calculated, 0.0121
4
2
xn
The damped natural frequency,
d 1.6066Hz.
-2
-4
Using n
-6
0
10
Time (second)
15
20
Free response of the flexible beam vibration at its 1 mode
st
1
2
Dr. Song
d 2
n 1
t n t1
n 1.6068Hz or 10.05 rad/s

s 2 0.24 s 101 0
20
Root Locus Plot

Consider the following closed-loop system:
R(s)
+_
G(s)
Angle condition:
G ( s ) H ( s ) 180o(2k 1) ( k 0,1, 2.......)
C(s)
Magnitude condition:
H(s)
| G ( s) H ( s) | 1
The closed-loop systems transfer function is
In general, the closed-loop transfer function

can be written as:
C (s)
G ( s)
R( s) 1 G ( s) H ( s)
The characteristic equation for the closed-loop system is
1 G ( s) H ( s) 0
or
where the gain K is a controller parameter.
G ( s ) H ( s ) 1
Or the open-loop transfer function is
Since G(s)H(s), the open-loop transfer function, is a complex

quantity, the equation can be split into two equations by
equating the angles and magnitudes of both sides,
respectively to obtain the following:
K ( s z1 )( s z2 )......( s zm )
0
( s p1 )( s p2 )......( s pn )
G (s) H (s)
Dr. Song
K ( s z1 )( s z2 )......( s zm )
( s p1 )( s p2 )......( s pn )
21
Root Locus Plot (cont)
Definition: The loci of the roots of the characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles,
when the value of the gain K varies from 0 to infinity.
Application: To assist control system design. Root locus plot offers a clear map between
the value of gain K and the closed-loop systems stability and performance.
Plot Root Loci:
The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of the
characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles. Therefore we can use the open-loop
information to plot the root loci of the closed-loop system.
A plot of the points in the complex plane satisfying the angle condition alone is the root
locus since the gain K can be any value from 0 to infinity. The roots of the characteristic
equation corresponding to a given value of the gain can be determined from the
magnitude condition.
Dr. Song
22
Bode Diagram
As we know, a smart structure system, such as the flexible beam with PZT patches,
responds differently to sinusoidal input with different frequencies. The sinusoidal
transfer function is used to study sinusoidal response of the system.
The sinusoidal transfer function of G(s) is obtained by replacing s by j. G(j) is the
sinusoidal transfer function.
A sinusoidal transfer function may be represented by two separate plots, one giving the
magnitude versus frequency and the other the phase angle (in degrees) versus frequency.
A Bode diagram consists of two graphs: One is a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude
of a sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the phase angle; both are plotted
against the frequency in logarithmic scale.
The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of G(j) is 20log| G(j)| ,
where the base of the logarithm is 10.
The unit used in this representation of the magnitude is the decibel, usually abbreviated as dB.
The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that multiplication of magnitudes can be converted
into addition. Furthermore, a simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude curve is
available. It is based on asymptotic approximations. Such approximation by straight line asymptotes
is sufficient if only rough information on the frequency-response characteristics is needed. Note that
the experimental determination of a transfer function can be made simple if frequency-response data
are presented in the form of a Bode diagram.
Dr. Song
23
Bode Diagram of a 2nd-Order System

Note: The higher the
peak, the lower the
damping ratio.
For the second order system,

n2
G (s) 2
s 2 n s n2
Its corresponding sinusoidal transfer function is,
G ( j )
i.e., G ( j )
n2
( j )2 2 n j n2
1
j n 2 2 j n 1
Its Bode Diagram is shown in the figure.

Resonance frequency (for 0 0.707)
r n 1 2 2
Resonance peak value (for 0 0.707)
M r 1 2 1 2
Bode Diagram of a 2nd-order System
There will be no resonance if 0.707.

Dr. Song
24
Power Spectrum Density Plot
PSD Plots of the Flexible Beam
Dr. Song
25
Effects of P, I, and D Controls

1. Open-loop and Proportional (P) control response to torque disturbances
D (unit step)
R(s)
+_
Controller
1
Js 2 bs
C(s)
Assuming R(s) = 0
If open-loop,
C(s)
1
2
, unstable
D(s) Js bs
If with P control,
C(s)
1
2
D(s) Js bs K p
Controller = Kp
E (s)
C(s)
1
2
D(s)
D(s)
Js bs K p
ess (steady state error) due to step disturbance torque Td (= 1) is

e ss lim sE (s) lim
s 0
s 0
Td
T
s
1
d
Js bs K p s
Kp
Kp
2
Dr. Song
26
With P control, the system now is closed-loop and become stable when subject to
disturbances.
Generally, the higher Kp gain, the less steady state error
Generally, the higher Kp gain, the more oscillations the system will experience.
2. Integral (I) control

E (s)
D(s)
E (s)
1
K p 1
Ti s
A PI controller
s
Js 3 bs 2 K p s
Kp
Ti
s
K
Js bs K p s p
Ti
3
D( s)
ess lim sE ( s ) lim

s 0
Controller =
s 0
s2
1
0
K
s
Js 3 bs 2 K p s p
Ti
If I gain or Ti is chosen properly, the steady state error can be eliminated.

Otherwise, the system may experience instability.
Dr. Song
27
3. Derivative (D) control action.
controller =
K p 1 Td s
A PD controller
C(s)
1
2
D(s) Js (b K p Td )s K p
E (s)
C(s)
D(s)
D(s)
Prove with P&D control, e ss
1
Kp
D control does not affect steady state error.

D control can respond to the rate of change of the actuating error and therefore increase damping
to the system.
For a second order system, such as this example, adjusting P & D gains can achieve a
compromise between acceptable transient response and acceptable steady state error.
Dr. Song
28
PD Control of Vibration of A Smart Plate using PZTs

Time history of plate's free vibration
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Voltage
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time
3.5
4.5
Free Vibration
Time history of the Plate vibration with PD control
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Voltage
0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
-0.5
The Experimental Setup
0.5
1.5
2
Time
2.5
3.5
With PD Control
Dr. Song
29
PD Position Control of an SMA Linear Actuator

Linear Bearing
Linear Variable Differential

Transformer
(LVDT) Sensor
With PD Control
Open Loop Testing

4.5
-5
3.5
-10
Position(mm)
Position(cm)
Red = Desired Position, Blue = Actual Position
2.5
2
-15
-20
-25
1.5
-30
-35
-40
0.5
0
Position(mm)
Position (cm) Vs Voltage (V)
-45
0
Voltage (V)
10
15
Dr. Song
10
15
Time(sec)
20
25
30
30
Lead Compensation: an Example

A lead compensator in the following format can be
designed using root locus method or Bode diagram method.
x
-p1
Gc ( s ) K c
o
-z1
Piezo Patches
Function Generator
s z1
,
s p1
p1 z1
A lead compensator provides phase lead and increases

damping and stability of a system.
To see how a lead compensator work, let
use the example of the aluminum
Flexible Beam
flexible beam setup.
If the beam vibrates only at its mode (1.6Hz), its
transfer function can be approximated by
Oscilloscope
G(s)
Power Amplifier
PC with data
time control system
12.5
s 2 0.24 s 101
which is a highly underdamped system. We will use a

lead compensator to increase damping of the system by
using the PZT sensor and actuators.
Dr. Song
31
The Lead Compensator

Using the root locus plot method, we design a lead compensator,
Gc ( s) 5
s 0.05
s 4.99
Its Bode diagram is

shown in the figure,
which clearly shows
the compensator
provides a phase lead.
Dr. Song
32
Lead Compensation: Comparison of Root Locus Plots

From the pole locations of the
compensated system (with control), it is
clear that the damping of the system has
been increased. (Recall the figure on
page 17.)
Dr. Song
33
Lead Compensation: Comparison of Bode Diagrams
The compensated system has a lower resonant peak value than the uncompensated system. This
indicates the compensated system has a higher damping ratio.
Dr. Song
34
Lead Compensation: Comparison of Impulse Response
The vibration of the compensated system dies much faster than that of the uncompensated
system. The lead compensator is effective in increasing damping of the system.
Dr. Song
35
Lead Compensation: Experimental Results
Free Vibration
(multiple modes excitation)
With Lead Compensation

(damping ratio=0.047)
Dr. Song
36
Positive Position Feedback Controller: Example

R(s)
n2
s 2 2 n s n2
Y(s)
Second order Transfer Function of the

Beam
Gn2
c2
1
s 2 cc s c2
2
PPF Compensator
Block Diagram of PPF Controller

Piezo Patches
Flexible Beam
Function Generator
G(s)
Oscilloscope
12.5
s 2 0.24 s 101
Transfer Function of the Smart Beam

Power Amplifier
PC with data
time control system
Dr. Song
37
PPF Logic
Phase Angle Plot of Compensator
Dr. Song
38
Bode plot of PPF Compensator
Dr. Song
39
Bode plot comparison
Dr. Song
40
Root Locus Comparison
Dr. Song
41
Bode plot of SRF Compensator
Dr. Song
42
Strain Rate Feedback (SRF) Controller: Example
Block Diagram of Strain Rate Feedback Controller
Dr. Song
43
SRF Logic
Phase angle plot of Strain Rate Feedback Controller
Dr. Song
44
Bode plot Comparison
Dr. Song
45
Root Locus Comparison
Dr. Song
46
Impulse Response Comparison
Dr. Song
47

Dynamics and Controls Related Knowledge

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dynamics and Controls Related Knowledge

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dynamics and Controls Related Knowledge

4. Dynamics and Controls Related Knowledge

Laplace Transform and Transfer Functions