Chapter 3

Introduction to
Computer Software

Software in General

each information system is based upon

software under the form of programs and
procedures
software is needed for input , processing ,
output, storage and management activities

Trends in software development:

usage of packages
usage of non-procedural languages ( 4GL )

Software Categories

OBrien 88

C o m p u te r
S o ftw a re
S y s te m
s o ftw a re
S y s te m
M anagem ent
P ro g ra m s

S y s te m
S u p p o rt
P ro g ra m s

- Operating Systems - System Utilities

- Operating
- Performance
environments
Monitors
- Database
- Security monitors
Management
System
- Telecommunications
monitors

A p p lic a tio n
S o ftw a re
S y s te m
D e v e lo p m e n t
P ro g ra m

P ro g ra m s
G e n e ra l
P u rp o s e
A p p lic a tio n

A p p lic a tio n -s p e c ific

P ro g ra m s

- Programming
Language
translators
- Programming
environments
- CASE packages

- Word Processing
- Spreadsheets
- Database
Managers
- Telecommunications
- Graphics
- Integrated
Packages

- Accounting
- Marketing , Sales
analysis
- Manufacturing
- Production
Control
- Finance
Capital
Budgeting ,...

Software Trends

First
Generation

Second
Generation

OBrien 89

Third
Fourth
Fifth
Generation Generation Generation?

Trend: Toward Conversational Natural Programming Languages.

Software
Trends

User-Written
programs

Packaged
programs

Operating
systems

Database
Management
Systems

Machine
language

Symbolic
languages

High-level
languages 4GL
Microcomputer
Packages

Trend: Toward Easy-to-Use Multipurpose Application Packages.

Natural
Languages
Multipurpose
GUI
Expert

Application Software for End Users

General Applicable Software

suites
MS-office: word , excel, powerpoint, access, outlook, explorer

Web-browsers
netscape
explorer

Electronic mail
CASE
Encyclopedia
Databases
Groupware

Lotus notes

Text: OBrien p 92 - 101

Interfaces HW - user
System software
operating system: OS, DBMS, comm
support: system utilities
development: compilers, CASE, 4GL
Application software
packages
own development

End user
Application SW
System SW
Computerhardware

OBrien 98

Operating Systems

User interface
file management
Task management
UNIX, VM or MVS, VSM, MS-DOS
Database Management systems

Telecommunication monitors

network servers, front-end processors, middleware

Programming languages and Compilers

ORACLE, Informix, INGRES, SYBASE, DB2, Paradox

procedural vs. non-procedural, 4GL, natural languages

Programming Tools

workbenches, prototyping tools, editors, debuggers

Basic Functions of an Operating System

User
interface

Communication between
system and user

Utility
management

Task
management

File
management

Management of
peripheral devices

Task follow-up

Management of
data and
programs

Multitasking
Virtual memory

Text: OBrien p 105

Supporting
programs and
other functions
Supporting
functions

Operating System
Examples : UNIX, DOS, OS/2, MVS

Shell

Kernel
provides elementary
computer functions

System
interface

Programs

UNIX

File - and
Directory systems

TextProgramming
processors
languages
Program
interpreter

Communication Programmingand networks utilities

Operating systems
Operating system = management system

hides hardware details for the users

different machines look identical

depends on the type of applications

Other System Software

Network management ( middleware, firewalls, )

File management

Database management systems

performance monitors

security monitor

Text: OBrien p 108 - 109

Program Interaction with the Environment

Batch: . no interaction with environment
. required data are prepared in advance
. results are delivered to the user afterwards
. moment in time and speed are unimportant for
the user
Interactive:
. permanent dialogue between program and user
. input of data in function of the results
. moment in time and speed are extremely
important for the user (real time)
. user friendly ( error messages )

The absolute binary loader

A program must first be loaded in central memory and
the P-register must be initialized with the address of
the first instruction of the program.
The absolute binary loader is a small program that:
. loads the binary form of the program (absolute object
code) from the peripheral memory into the central
memory
. is mostly stored in a reserved part of the memory
central memory

ABL

The "command interpreter"

Command interpreter
Program that gives access to tables containing the name
of the program and its address in the mass memory
These tables are managed by the file manager
With an instructive command processor the user inputs via
the terminal , the name of the program to be executed
Load chess

central memory

chess
FMGR
comm.int

ABL

The interrupt handler

Normal program termination

cmnd interpreter
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

In case of a program interruption

cmnd interpreter
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

control
unit

Program X

________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

return to cmnd.int

Program X

________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

return to cmnd.int

Task scheduling
Task scheduler , job scheduler , queue manager
manages the waiting queue of all commands which have not yet
been executed
If there is space available in memory , the task scheduler selects a
task from the input queue and orders the loader to load the
corresponding program into the memory
Selection criteria
. round robin algorithm: FIFO + limited time slice

preempted tasks after t sec

new tasks

CM

finished
tasks

Task scheduler 2
Handle batch queue only if the interactive queue is empty

interactive tasks

interactive queue
finished
tasks

preempted tasks after t sec

new batch tasks

Batch queue

CM

Process scheduling
The process scheduler is the part of the operating system
that decides which program in memory , the CPU will
work on .
Process status's
active

task terminated

transition
active-waiting
load
swap-out

wait
for CPU

i/o terminated
(interrupt)

start
i/o

blocked

Transition Active-Waiting after action of the process scheduler

Process priorities
Algorithm for according priorities must be :
- simple ( overhead )
- give I/O jobs higher priority for optimal usage of I/O
active
select
process with P max
P:=P-1
wait
for CPU

blocked
P:=P+1

P can get an initial value , eg. depending on the user category

Spooling
In case of shared usage of peripheral equipment in a multiprogramming environment
Spooling monitor:
Part of the operating system that writes all of the available input and
output per program on a disk , and makes it available as soon as
the required peripheral equipment is free .

Program A
Program B
spooler
Program C

disk

End-User Applications

general purpose packages

word processing , productivity packages

Application-specific programs

Business application programs

Scientific application programs

Education, entertainment, art, law, medicine, ...

Graphics packages

Integrated Packages

Programming
and
programming languages

Programming
The same hardware can be used for various
applications thanks to the programmability
Specific aspects of tasks are not build-in in the hardware
but in the software . They are loaded in the program memory
( except for some I/O functions ).
Programming is an important aspect in every automation project.
The programmer has to know the problem very well ;
this has to be achieved during analysis or specification gathering .
Specifications are focused on the user.
Specifications are reflected in programs and translated into
an executable program.

Programming Languages
A Programming language is a set of conventions that allows to
express a program in a format that is also more or less readable for
humans.
Machine languages
Use binary coded instructions
Assembly languages
use symbolic coded instructions
Higher Programming languages
use statements that are close to English together with arithmetic notations
Fourth generation languages
use natural and non-procedural statements
Object oriented languages
Data and procedures are combined in objects

Elementary Languages
There is a direct relationship between the
vocabulary of the language ( syntax ) and the
instructions for the computer
The most elementary language is the machine
language
- operation codes and operands have the format of
binary numbers
- completely machine-dependent
- almost unreadable for programmers
- source of errors
- time consuming
- 11011011 represents ADD in a certain language

Assembly Languages
e.g.: opening door

STO

D1

P2

STO

D2

P3

EQ?

KFL

P3

P4

MUL

D2

10

D2

P5

ADD

D2

KDA

D2

P6

ADD

D1

D1

P7

NE?

D1

P3

P8

NE?

D2

207

P1

P9

STO

DDA

P1

Operation codes and operands get symbolic names

Addresses of words in memory that contain data
get a meaningful name
Require important knowledge about computers
susceptible to errors
Still hardware related

Higher Level languages

In higher level programming languages they try in the first
place to make abstraction of the used machine

Procedures and data are described in terms that are closer to the
application domain in which they are used

An instruction can represent a set of machine instructions ;

Variables can take abstract values
eg.: month

Much higher productivity;

lower risk for errors:

Imperative languages: BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, ADA, PASCAL, C, Modula,

Non-imperative languages: LISP, PROLOG, Scheme

Language Example
Calculate the average of two numbers
Memory addresses:
oral
final

Pascal:

written 30

31
40

final := ( written + oral ) / 2

Assembler:

a,written

machine language:

66 30

(CALM)

load
add
a,oral
divide a,#2
store a,final

54 31
43 02
67 40

required computer knowledge always higher

Assessment

productivity of programmers is better with higher

programming languages
Translation into machine language is not always optimal
leading to theoretically slower programs
Higher cost for computer capacity largely compensated
by reduced programming costs
elementary languages only used in case of:
- hardware cost much higher than programming cost
- small programs sold in large quantities
- critical parts of programs for supercomputers

Imperative languages
With imperative languages the programmer writes all
tasks to be performed in the appropriate sequence
e.g.: linear equation AX+B=0
- read coefficients A and B ;
- calculate quotient of B divided by A ;
- change sign of the result ;
- assign the value of the quotient to X ;
- write the value of X .

COBOL, BASIC, ADA , Pascal , Modula , .....

Non-imperative languages
In non-imperative languages only the
relationships between the data are given.
The actions to be performed by thee computer
are derived from this relationships.
The solution of the linear equation can be formulated
as follows:
- The coefficients A and B can be read
- the variable X is defined by X= - B/A
to execute the program it is enough to write:
write X
e.g.: LISP , PROLOG

Object oriented languages

In Object oriented languages programs pass an
instruction to the object to perform the operation.

De
ow sign
ne
r

e
lat
lcu
ca tatus
s

Actual
status

transmit

Text: OBrien p 113

thly
Mon iew
rv
ove

Ca
lc
int ulate
ere
st

register

C++
Eifel
Smalltalk
JAVA
Visual Basic

Compilers and Interpreters

Programs written in a higher language must be

converted into machine language
Source code
Compiler

Interpreter

Object code

Hardware

Compilers and interpreters 2

Compiler:
During compilation the entire program is converted into
executable OBJECT code. It can be saved and reloaded
several times.
This is especially useful for larger programs that have to be
executed several times without having to be modified.

Interpreter:
The source code is translated by the interpreter instruction by
instruction into machine language and immediately executed.
At every execution the translation is redone.
This is interesting to debug programs or for small programs
using little mass memory.
Source code takes much less space than object code.

Compilation vs Interpretation
Compilation

Interpretation

fast

execution

Slow

slow

modifications

fast

cryptic

error messages

clear

large

memory space

small

unavoidable

mass memory

optional