Electroencephalogra

m
(EEG): Measuring
Brain Waves

Function of EEG
The EEG uses highly conductive silver electrodes coated with
silver-chloride and gold cup electrodes to obtain accurate
measures use impedance device to measure effectiveness,
resistance caused by dura mater, cerebrospinal fluid, and skull
bone
Monopolar Technique : the use of one active recording electrode
placed on area of interest, a reference electrode in an inactive
area, and a ground
Bipolar Technique : the use of two active electrodes on areas of
interest
Measures brain waves (graphs voltage over time) through
electrodes by using the summation of many action potentials sent
by neurons in brain. Measured amplitudes are lessened with
electrodes on surface of skin compared to electrocorticogram

Sodium-Potassium Pump
The mechanism within neurons that creates action
potentials through the exchange between sodium and
potassium ions in and out of the cell
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) provides energy for
proteins to pump 300 sodium ions per second out of
the cell while simultaneously pumping 200 potassium
ions per second into the cell (concentration gradient)
Thus making the outside of the cell more positively
charged and the neuron negatively charged
This rapid ionic movement causes the release of action
potentials

History
Richard Caton (1875) localization of sensory functions with
monkeys and rabbits
Hans Berger (1924) first EEG recording done on humans
- described alpha wave rhythm and its suppression compared to beta
waves
- acknowledged alpha blockade when subject opens eyes

William Grey Walter influenced by Pavlov and Berger, further

developed EEG to discover delta waves during sleep (1937) and
theta waves (1953)

Alpha
Wave
Characteristics:
- frequency: 8-13 Hz
-amplitude: 20-60 V
Easily produced when quietly sitting in relaxed position with eyes
closed (few people have trouble producing alpha waves)
Alpha blockade occurs with mental activity
-exceptions found by Shaw(1996) in the case of mental arithmetic,
archery, and golf putting

Beta Waves
Characteristics:
-frequency: 14-30 Hz
-amplitude: 2-20 V
The most common form of brain waves. Are present during mental
thought and activity

Theta Waves
Characteristics:
-frequency: 4-7Hz
-amplitude: 20-100V
Believed to be more common in children than adults
Walter Study (1952) found these waves to be related to
displeasure, pleasure, and drowsiness
Maulsby (1971) found theta waves with amplitudes of 100V in
babies feeding

Delta Waves
Characteristics:
-frequency: .5-3.5 Hz
-amplitude: 20-200V
Found during periods of deep sleep in most people
Characterized by very irregular and slow wave patterns
Also useful in detecting tumors and abnormal brain behaviors

Gamma
Waves
Characteristics:
-frequency: 36-44Hz
-amplitude: 3-5V
Occur with sudden sensory stimuli

Less Common Waves

Kappa Waves:
-frequency: 10Hz
-occurred in 30% of subjects while thinking in Kennedy
et al.(1948)
Lambda Waves:
-amplitude: 20-50V
-last 250 msec, related to response of shifting visual
image
-triangular in shape
Mu Waves:
-frequency: 8-13Hz
-sharp peeks with rounded negative portions (7% of
population)

Alternative
Neuroimaging
Techniques

Positron Emission Technique (PET):

- picture image of brain giving information about glucose and
oxygen structures in the brain, blood flow, and blood volume in the
brain
-advantage: compare cross-sections of brain regions
simultaneously
-disadvantage: findings may be caused by inhibitory neurons
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI):
-picture image of anatomical structures, derived from magnetic
imaging
-allows for measurement of blood oxygen concentration, blood
flow, and blood volume
-advantage: see ongoing changes as well as strong spatial
resolution, and quick/effective data collection

Alternative Methods
(cont)
Biomagnetism:
-Measures magnetic activity given off by the brain
-Super conductive quantum interfering device (SQUID)
-disadvantage: very difficult to pick up these small magnetic
measures due to environmental magnetic forces
Magnetoencephalogram (MEG):
-similar to EEG in that it combines the activities of millions of
neurons
-advantages: no reference electrode, some currents can only be
found magnetically, scans field patterns of brain allowing for
simultaneous area activity
-disadvantage: data not as clear and device is very susceptible to
noise

The EEG and its Many

Applications

Research and Application

Psychological

Research
Neurological Research
Medical Research
Educational Research and Application
Therapeutic Application
Occupational Application

How Effective is the EEG?

A great deal of controversy has surrounded the

use of EEG in tests for such topics as Intelligence
and mental performance.
Criticism, however, is familiar to any aspect of
research in the scientific world.
As a result of the critiques and of technological
advances, procedures, measurements, and results
have become more precise, reliable, and valid.
In order to the best and most accurate information
from EEGs, though, researchers agree that further
investigation and ongoing research is necessary.

 The

EEG has become a widely used

and successful research tool
It is a practical candidate that offers valid
measurement
It contributes objective information that
can be easily viewed and measured
It is a versatile system that allows for a
diverse application of the information it
provides

 Hemispheric

Asymmetries &
Hemispheric Lateralization/
Specialization

Desynchronization

Right and Left Brain

Characteristics

Right Brain:

Spatial processing
Musical tasks

Left Brain:

Verbal processing
Mathematical skills
** Emotions have also been correlated with differential
hemispheric processing (Davidson, Schwartz, Saron,
Bennett and Goleman, 1979)
(Andreassi, John L., Psychophysiology: Human Behavior and Physiological Response, 2000).

Stimulus Complexity

An investigation was conducted by Berlyne

and McDonnel (1965) in order to study the
effects of the complexity of the
stimulus/stimuli on the EEG alpha wave.
Their hypothesis was confirmed as a result
of EEG records that demonstrated that
higher levels of complexity produced
longer alpha desynchronization periods.

(Andreassi, John L., Psychophysiology: Human Behavior and Physiological Response, 2000).

Tasks of Vigilance and

Attention

In order to study attention ability Ray and

Cole (1985) investigated participants
intake and rejection of stimuli.
The results showed that alpha power was
greater in the right hemisphere during
rejection.

Beatty, Greenberg, Deibler, and OHanlon

(1974) found that EEG readings
demonstrated that suppression of theta
activity and rhythm helped to better
maintain vigilance while performing tasks.

(Andreassi, John L., Psychophysiology: Human Behavior and Physiological Response, 2000).

Hypnosis, Imagery, Meditation

and Perception
Traditionally, the lines between the four
greatly related mind states were not very clear.
Research conducted with the use of EEG, however,
has enabled researchers to draw more distinct lines
between each of the topics, and to study the
distinct characteristics of each of them.

Hypnosis
EEG during hypnosis has contributed to the knowledge that
it is not a stage of deep sleep, rather a modification of the
waking state
MacLeod, Morgan and Lack (1982) conducted a dream task
study during hypnosis using EEG.

The results demonstrated a shift from greater left hemisphere

activity, to right in highly hypnotizable participants, and no
such shift in low hypnotizable participants.

A related study conducted by DePascalis and Perrone (1996)

revealed that participant pain ratings decreased when an
analgesic state was suggested during hypnosis
The EEG records showed a decrease in EEG amplitude in the
right hemisphere during the above mentioned condition.

(Andreassi, John L., Psychophysiology: Human Behavior and Physiological Response, 2000).

Imagery

Gale, Morris, Lucas and Richardson conducted a

study in 1972 in which imagery was measured on
a vividness scale, while the occipital area was
recorded using EEG.
The results of the EEG showed a definite decrease in
Alpha activity during all but one of the imagery tasks.

Williamson and Kaufman (1989) later integrated

the Magnetoencephalograpy (MEG) to study
suppression of alpha activity in the visual cortex
during mental imagery.
(Andreassi, John L., Psychophysiology: Human Behavior and Physiological Response, 2000).

Meditation

Results from a study conducted by Elson,

Hauri, and Cunis (1977) were collected
and based on EEG information.
The EEG readings from the meditating group
demonstrated stable alpha and theta activity,
and none fell asleep.
The EEG records from the non-meditating
group, on the other hand, revealed Kcomplexes and sleep spindles. A total of six of
the participants from the group fell asleep.
(Andreassi, John L., Psychophysiology: Human Behavior and Physiological Response, 2000).

Sensation, Perception and EEG

Studies

have indicated that our

perception and sensations may have
substantial effects on mood and
emotional states.

EEG records showed that sound sensitivity was

lower during periods of alpha activity than
during non-alpha activity.
In 1998 Martin evaluated previous information
about the effect of odor on EEG and mood,
conducting two of his own studies, and was able
to report a variety of effects.

He believed that previous investigations produced

different results due to a difference in EEG recording.
The results of his own carefully controlled experiments
supported a correlation between odor and EEG activity.
**Real food odors, such as chocolate, were linked to
extremely low theta levels and received the highest
participant ratings for relaxing effects and
pleasantnessrevealing the capability of odors to
change EEG activity.

(Andreassi, John L., Psychophysiology: Human Behavior and Physiological Response, 2000).

The Awesome EEG

It is plain to see that EEG has offered a

number of great advances in research. It
has demonstrated its versatility and
usefulness in the many diverse areas that
it has been utilized. From therapeutic
endeavors, and enhancing educational
efforts, to offering information and insight
that has helped to improve pilots,
conductors, and drivers vigilance
performance, as well as strengthening the
base of general knowledge in a way that
has helped to improve our everyday lives .

Conditioning of The EEG

&
Sleep and The EEG

Conditioning of the
EEG

Classical Conditioning (EEG):

Pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli to warrant a

conditioned response.
EEG recordings found changes in neural activity with the
presence of CS (Condition stimulus).
In EEG experiments that involve conditioning:
-alpha blocking occurs with respect to the CS after
many
pairing
of a CS and US.
-The UR (unconditioned response) is a natural alpha
blocking process.
-Classical conditioning Is usually done with the
participant being
asleep.

CS US UR
alone cannot
(light) (tone) (no response)

}Natural alpha blocking , the CS

sustain alpha blocking

after several pairings

CS
US UR
(light)
(tone)
CS
US UR
W/
(light)
(tone)
CS
US UR
(light)
(tone)

}Trying to sustain CS alpha blocking

multiple pairings of US.

finally
US CR
CS CR
own.

} The US has now been shaped to create the CS.

} The new CS creates the same CR as the previous
CS. The new CS can now generate alpha blocking on its

Operant Conditioning (EEG)

Can it be done?

Done while participant is awake.

Studies include work with people suffering from seizures
(epileptics), and their progress.
Studies w/ operant conditioning shows results of other
disorders being alleviated (biofeedback). I.E. Migraines
Studies are being done to see if people can control which
brain waves they can produce (alpha and theta) with the
onset of a signal or tone.
Most people could not produce alpha and theta waves on
command w/o the signal or tone being given
Researches tried to alter mood with alpha waves as well.
All in all, operant conditioning of EEG has been deemed
possible

Non-contingent stimuli

(operant

conditioning):

Expectancy effects:
- Subjects who were led to believe that they enhanced
alpha were actually able to control alpha better than
those who believed they suppressed alpha.

Biasing effects:
- Experimenters expectations were found to influence EEG alpha
measures in the direction of the expectation.

Controls:
- Controls are effective and necessary in non-contingent stimulation
studies in
operant conditioning studies.
A. increase in alpha could be due to randomness or non-contingent
stimuli.

Sleep and The EEG

Sleep and EEG:

Sleep studies are very hard to conduct.

- Takes many nights to conduct a full study
- Patience is a must both participants and
experimenters

Benefits of sleep studies:

- Better understanding in studies involving
A. Human performance
B. Behavior
C. Well-Being

Sleep and EEG contd:

Sleep studies began in the 1800s

1930s EEG recording machines began to make an
appearance.
Todays sleep laboratories have many different kinds of
physiological machines and recorders such as:
EEG
EOG (electroculogram)
EMG (electromyogram)
Rectal temperature
Respiration
(Any measurements made by these machines are calledPolysomnograms)

Sleep and EEG contd:

Different stages of sleep and their respective brain waves:

Stage 1: Low voltage random EEG activity (2-7 Hz)

Stage 2: Irregular EEG pattern/negative-positive spikes (12- to 14- Hz)
Also characterized with sleep spindle and K-complexes that could occur every few
seconds.

Stage 3: Alternative fast activity, low/high voltage waves and high

amplitude delta waves or slow waves (2 Hz or less).
Stage 4: Delta waves
Stage REM (Rapid eye Movement): episodic rapid eye movements,
low v
voltage activity.
Stage NREM: All stage combined, but not including REM or stages that
may contain
REM.

The K-complex occurs randomly in stage 2 and stage 3

The K complex is like an awaken state of mind in that is associated with

a response to a stimulus that one would experience while awake.

EEG and Dreaming:

REM was discovered in 1953 by Aserinsky and Kleitman.

REM was observed as fast eye movements that moved in
many directions while a person was asleep.
REM varied in amplitude and lasted 1 second or less.
Studies showed that people remember dreams 75% (6090%) more when waken during REM sleep, If not woken
during REM sleep dreams are only remembered 7% of the
time.
NREM dreams are described as being less active and less
vivid
Therefore, there are both qualitative and quantitative
differences when discussing REM and NREM sleep.

Dream Studies:

The first dream studies were interested in:

Changing dream content
Drugs and their effects on dreaming
Pre-sleep stimulation and dreaming
Dream content with respect to patients that had
different psychiatric disorders

REM Dreaming:

Most early research was concerned with lucidity of REM

Dreaming.

High amplitude EEG alpha waves.

Meaning one could shape what they dreamed in choosing what

they would dream about.
Come to the realization that one is dreaming
Higher in the beginning of REM, and lower in end of REM.
Higher amplitude waves are also characterized of bizarre,
and emotional dreams.

Ongoing lucid studies are being conducted to see if lucid

content come from prelucid dreaming.

Questions the relationship between REM alpha waves and

Lucidity

Deep sleep and Responsiveness:

Light sleep (stages 1&2)

Deep sleep (stages 3&4)
Sleep is cyclical
Meaning that one will usually go from light sleep to
deep sleep back to light sleep again.
The whole cycle take about 1 and hours (90 min.)
Stage 3 and 4 are hard to obtain, due to light sleep
occurring more towards the end of a sleep cycle.

EEG brain waves in the Sleep

Cycle:

Sounds and sleep:

Studies found it was more difficult to wake up a person

during latter stages of sleep, even with very loud sounds.

Fire alarm study:

Researchers looked at how long it would take for
someone in a certain stage of sleep to turn off the
aversive stimulus (Alarm).
They found People in stage 1 sleep were more likely to
turn off the aversive stimulus quicker than all other
stages.
Researchers also found that meaningful stimuli
awakened people quicker than non-meaningful stimuli.

Work and Exercise and how it effects

sleep EEG: (Kripke, Cook, and Lewis 1976
)

Work

(hospital employees):

- Hospital employees experience a reversal in the sleepwakefulness

cycle (biological effects).
- Duration of each stage of sleep was usually shorter.
- Stage 1 sleep in hospital employees was generally longer than
typical
stage 1 sleep in normal sleepers.

Work

(night shift- permanent):

- Have better body temperature regulation, and more stable sleep

patterns.

Work schedule and sleep contd:

Hospital workers actually fall asleep if put on a rotating

schedule
(10pm 6am)
Sleep during daytime hours takes longer, than
nighttime hours.
Daytime sleepers (permanent night shift workers)
have reduced REM sleep.

Exercise and Sleep EEG:

Horne and

porter (1975)

There are differences between afternoon and morning exercise.

Exercise conditions do not help one to fall asleep easier.
Relaxation techniques help people to fall asleep easier (Brownman and
Tepas, 1976).

Afternoon exercises produce increased slow-wave sleep/stages 3

and 4.
(85 minutes bike ride)
Same amount of exercise in morning had no effects.
Stages 3 and 4 are known and restore and repair stages.

However, people that exercise do not experience longer

durations of sleep in stages 3 and 4 or SWS (Brownman and
Tepas, 1976).
Bunnel, Bevier, and Horvath found that exercising to the
point of exhaustion increased slow-wave sleep, but
decreased REM.

Therefore daytime activity can increase stage 3 and 4

sleep/SWS as long as it is intense in duration.

Sleep Deprivation:
Three

missing one or more sleep periods

Partial sleep Deprivation

(Naitoh, 1975)

Total sleep deprivation

different kinds:

missing a section of the sleep cycle

Differential Sleep Deprivation

Wakening a person during different random points in a sleep cycle

based on EEG signs of particular stage

Total Sleep Deprivation: (Woodward and

Nelson, 1974)

Studied army men who experienced 2 sleep cycles lost

Effects:

Memory impairment (short term memory)

Increased irritableness
Attention deficits (micro lapses)
Lack of motivation
EEG showed an increase in slow wave sleep in recovery

Partial Sleep Deprivation:

(Webb &

Agnew, 1974)

Done over a 60 day periods consisting of 5 hours of

sleep each night.
Experienced an increase in Stage 2 and 4 sleep.
REM decreased by 25%
Vigilance decreased as experiment progressed.

Conclusion for partial sleep deprivation:

6 hours is needed to be vigilant
Major behavioral differences will occur (see above)

Differential Sleep Deprivation:

(Moses,

Johnson, Naitoh and Lubin, 1975)

One study looked at deprivation of REM/Stage 4 sleep

deprivation and total REM sleep deprivation.

REM/Stage 4 study -2 nights vs. Total REM sleep -3 nights:

Needed more arousals than second experiment to keep them

from entering stage 4 sleep.
Concluded that Stage 4 has more importance than REM sleep
due to sleep loss.

Sleep onset, difficulties with EEG

wave location, experimental
difficulties:
Alpha waves vary person to person, makes it hard to locate in

stage 1 sleep
K-complexes and sleep spindles are giveaways of a person
being asleep
People dont respond to certain tones during certain stages of
sleep.
People might not hear the tone (hearing impaired)- Hearing
tests should be down to rule out this confounding variable.
People that have insomnia (elderly men and
women)/misperception etc.
Insomnia causes SWS abnormalities
Researchers would like a behavioral measure as an additional
indicator of a person being asleep, but none exists.

An ideal machine would measure finger muscle depression

Sleep onset, difficulties with EEG

wave location, experimental
difficulties contd:

EEG and thermoregulartory system patterns;

Shows that drop in rectal temperature, signifies SWS
is sustained.
More studies must be done to confirm this.

Summary of EEG:

Conditioning exercises prove that Alpha wave control may be

possible.
Discovery of REM made it possible for further investigations
into sleep studies and various parts of sleep.
The strength of a stimulus has an impact on the outcome of a
study.
Learning may occur during stage 1 & 2 of sleep when material
is meaningful
Dreams vary in content and emotions
Daytime sleep differs from nighttime sleep on a number of
levels
Confounding variables are important in eliminating before
conduction an EEG study.
Selective deprivation vs. Insomnia
Biological effects on sleep

References:

Andreassi, J. L. (2000). Psychophysiology: Human Behavior &

Physiological Response (4th ed.) Mahwah, New Jersey:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, publishers.

Sleep Holsitconline.com. (1998-1999). The different stages of

sleep [Chart]. World Wide Web. Retrieved September 10 th, 2006,
from
http://holisticonline.com/Remedies/Sleep/sleep_stages-14NREM.htm

(1996, October 11). The Electro-Physiology Of Sleep. Retrieved

September 9th, 2006, from
http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dreamthemes/a
ge31.html

References contd:

Cell Biology. (2005, January 11). Cell Biology. Retrieved

September
9th, 2006, from
http://www.nurseminerva.co.uk/cell.html

Wikipedia. (2006, September 9). Electroencephalography

[Chart]. World Wide Web. Retrieved September 8 th,
2006, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroencephalogram

Wikipedia. (2006, September 10). Hans Berger. World Wide

Web.
Retrieved September 9, 2006, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_berger