Chapter Five

Exploratory Research
Design:
Qualitative Research

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Chapter Outline
1)

Overview

2)

Primary Data: Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research

3)

Rationale for Using Qualitative Research Procedures

4)

A Classification of Qualitative Research Procedures

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Chapter Outline
5) Focus Group (FG) Interviews
i. Characteristics
ii. Planning and Conducting Focus Groups
iii. Telesessions and Other Variations
iv. Advantages and Disadvantages of Focus
Groups
v. Applications of Focus Groups
vi. Online Focus Group Interviews
vii. Advantages and Disadvantages of Online
FGs
6) Depth Interviews
i. Characteristics
ii. Techniques
iii. Advantages and Disadvantages of Depth
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Chapter Outline
7) Projective Techniques
i. Association Techniques
ii. Completion Techniques
a. Sentence Completion
b. Story Completion
iii. Construction Techniques
a. Picture Response
b. Cartoon Tests
iv. Expressive Techniques
a. Role Playing
b. Third-Person Technique
v. Advantages and Disadvantages of Projective
Techniques
vi. Applications of Projective Techniques
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Chapter Outline
8)

Analysis of Qualitative Data

9)

International Marketing Research

10)

Ethics in Marketing Research

11)

Summary

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A Classification of
Marketing
Fig. 5.1
Research
Data Research Data
Marketing
Secondary Data

Primary Data

Qualitative Data
Descriptive
Survey
Data
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Observational
and Other

Quantitative Data
Causal
Experiment
al Data
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Qualitative Vs. Quantitative

Research
Table 5.1
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Objective

To gain a qualitative
To quantify the data and
generalize the results
understanding of the
underlying reasons and from the sample to the
population of interest
motivations

Sample

Small number of nonrepresentative cases

Large number of
representative cases

Data
Collection

Unstructured

Structured

Non-statistical

Statistical

Develop an initial
understanding

Recommend a final course

of action

Data Analysis
Outcome
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A Classification of
Qualitative
Research
Fig. 5.2
Qualitative Research
Procedures Procedures
Direct (Nondisguised)

Focus Groups

Associatio
n
Technique
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Depth Interviews

Completio
n
Technique

Indirect
(Disguised)
Projective
Techniques

Construction
Techniques

Expressive
Technique
s

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Characteristics of Focus
Groups
Table 5.2
Group Size
Group Composition
respondents,
Physical Setting
Time Duration

8-12
Homogeneous,
prescreened
Relaxed, informal atmosphere
1-3 hours

Recording
videotapes

Use of audiocassettes and

Moderator
and

Observational, interpersonal,
communication skills of the
moderator

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Key Qualifications of Focus

Group Moderators
1. Kindness with firmness: The moderator must
combine a disciplined detachment with
understanding empathy so as to generate the
necessary interaction.
2. Permissiveness: The moderator must be
permissive yet alert to signs that the groups
cordiality or purpose is disintegrating.
3. Involvement: The moderator must encourage and
stimulate intense personal involvement.
4. Incomplete understanding: The moderator must
encourage respondents to be more specific about
generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete
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Key Qualifications of
Focus Group Moderators,
cont.
5. Encouragement: The moderator must
encourage unresponsive members to
participate.
6. Flexibility: The moderator must be able to
improvise and alter the planned outline amid
the distractions of the group process.
7. Sensitivity: The moderator must be sensitive
enough to guide the group discussion at an
intellectual as well as emotional level.
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Procedure for Planning and

Conducting Focus Groups

Fig. 5.3

Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem

Specify the Objectives of Qualitative
Research
State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus
Groups
Write a Screening Questionnaire
Develop a Moderators Outline
Conduct the Focus Group Interviews
Review Tapes and Analyze the Data
Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or
Action
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Variations in Focus Groups

Two-way focus group. This allows one target

group to listen to and learn from a related group.
For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a
focus group of arthritis patients discussing the
treatment they desired.

Dual-moderator group. A focus group conducted

by two moderators: One moderator is responsible
for the smooth flow of the session, and the other
ensures that specific issues are discussed.

Dueling-moderator group. There are two

moderators, but they deliberately take opposite
positions on the issues to be discussed.

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Variations in Focus Groups

Respondent-moderator group. The moderator

asks selected participants to play the role of
moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.

Client-participant groups. Client personnel are

identified and made part of the discussion group.

Mini groups. These groups consist of a moderator

and only 4 or 5 respondents.

Tele-session groups. Focus group sessions by

phone using the conference call technique.

Online Focus groups. Focus groups conducted

online over the Internet.

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Advantages of Focus
Groups
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
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Synergism
Snowballing
Stimulation
Security
Spontaneity
Serendipity
Specialization
Scientific
scrutiny
Structure
Speed
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Disadvantages of
Focus Groups

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1.

Misuse

2.

Misjudge

3.

Moderation

4.

Messy

5.

Misrepresentation

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Online Versus Traditional Focus

Groups
Table 5.3

Characteristic

Online Focus Groups

Traditional Focus Groups

Group size

4-6

8-12

Group composition

Anywhere in the world

Drawn from the local area

Time duration

1-1.5 hours

1-3 hours

Physical setting
researcher

Researcher has little control

Under the control of the

Respondent identity

Difficult to verify

Can be easily verified

Respondent attentiveness
other tasks
Attentiveness can be monitored
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Respondents can engage in

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Online Versus Traditional Focus

Groups
Table 5.3, cont.

Respondent recruiting
traditional means

Group dynamics

Easier. Can be recruited online, e-mail,

Recruited by

panel, or by traditional means

(telephone, mail, mail panel)

Limited

Synergistic, snowballing
(bandwagon) effect

Openness of respondentsRespondents are more candid

except for
due to lack of face-to-face contact

Respondents are candid,

sensitive topics

Nonverbal communication
observed
Body language and emotions
by using symbols
observed

Body language cannot be

Emotions expressed

Use of physical stimuli

(products,
demonstrations, etc.)
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Limited to those that can be displayed

A variety of stimuli
on the Internet
advertising
can be used
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Online Versus Traditional Focus

Groups
Table 5.3, cont.
Transcripts
to

Available immediately

Time consuming and expensive

obtain

Observers communication
Observers can communicate
with the
Observers can manually send notes
with moderator
the moderator on a split-screen
to the focus group room

Unique moderator skills Typing, computer usage, familiarity Observational

with chat room slang

Turnaround time

Can be set up and completed

in a few days

Takes many days for setup and

completion

Client travel costs

None

Can be expensive

Basic focus group costs

Much less expensive

More expensive: facility rental,

food, taping,

transcript preparation

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Advantages of Online Focus

Groups

Geographical constraints are removed and

time constraints are lessened.

Unique opportunity to re-contact group

participants at a later date.

Can recruit people not interested in traditional

focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.

Moderators can carry on side conversations

with individual respondents.

There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to

arrange so the cost is much lower.

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Disadvantages of Online Focus

Groups

Only people that have access to the Internet can

participate.

Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target

group is difficult.

There is lack of general control over the

respondent's environment.

Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested.

Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or
smelled (e.g., perfumes).

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Depth Interview Techniques:

Laddering
In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product
characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the
researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings.
Wide body aircrafts(product characteristic)

I can get more work done

I accomplish more

I feel good about myself (user characteristic)

Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying
our airline. You're The Boss.

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Depth Interview
Techniques:
Hidden
Issue
Questioning
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on
socially shared values but rather on personal sore
spots; not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt
personal concerns.
fantasies, work lives, and social lives

historic, elite, masculine-camaraderie, competitive

activities
Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness, high
status, and competitive heritage of the airline.
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Depth Interview
Techniques:
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic
Symbolic
Analysis
meaning of objects
by comparing them with their
opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are
investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of
an imaginary non-product, and opposite types of
products.
What would it be like if you could no longer use
airplanes?

Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and longdistance calls.

Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication.
Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a
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manager as Federal Express does for a package.
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Focus Groups Versus

Depth Interviews
Table 5.4

Focus
Groups
Group synergy and dynamics
+

Characteristic

Depth
Interviews
-

Peer pressure/group influence

Client involvement

Generation of innovative ideas +

In-depth probing of individuals

Uncovering hidden motives

Discussion of sensitive topics

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Focus Groups Versus

Depth Interviews
Table 5.4, cont.

Characteristic
Interviewing competitors
Interviewing professional
respondents
Scheduling of respondents
Amount of information

Focus
Depth
Groups Interviews
+
-

Bias in moderation and

+
interpretation
Note:
+ indicates a relative advantage over the
Cost
perA respondent
other procedure, a - indicates a relative
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Definition of Projective
Techniques

An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that

encourages respondents to project their
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or
feelings regarding the issues of concern.

In projective techniques, respondents are asked

to interpret the behavior of others.

In interpreting the behavior of others,

respondents indirectly project their own
motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into
the situation.

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Word Association
In word association, respondents are presented
with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to
respond to each with the first word that comes to
mind. The words of interest, called test words, are
interspersed throughout the list which also contains
some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose
of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating:
(1)the frequency with which any word is given as a
response;
(2)the amount of time that elapses before a
response is given; and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond
at all to a test word within a reasonable period of
time.
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Word Association
EXAMPLE
STIMULUS
washday
fresh
pure
scrub
filth
bubbles
family
towels

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MRS. M
everyday
and sweet
air
don't; husband does
this neighborhood
bath
squabbles
dirty

MRS. C
ironing
clean
soiled
clean
dirt
soap and water
children
wash

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Completion Techniques
In sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are
asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.
A person who shops at Sears is ______________________

A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth

Avenue would be __________________________________

J. C. Penney is most liked by _________________________

When I think of shopping in a department store, I ________

A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion,
in which the respondent completes a paragraph beginning
with the stimulus phrase.
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Completion Techniques
In story completion, respondents are given
part of a story enough to direct attention to
a particular topic but not to hint at the
ending.
They are required to give the
conclusion in their own words.

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Construction Techniques
With a picture response, the respondents are
asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary
as well as unusual events. The respondent's
interpretation of the pictures gives indications of
that individual's personality.

In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown

in a specific situation related to the problem.
The respondents are asked to indicate what one
cartoon character might say in response to the
comments of another character. Cartoon tests
are simpler to administer and analyze than
picture response techniques.
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A Cartoon Test
Figure 5.4

Sears

Lets see if we
can pick up
some house
wares at Sears.

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Expressive Techniques
In
expressive
techniques,
respondents
are
presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to
relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the
situation.
Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role
or assume the behavior of someone else.
Third-person technique The respondent is presented
with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is
asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third
person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs
and attitudes. This third person may be a friend,
neighbor, colleague, or a typical person.
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Advantages of Projective
Techniques

They may elicit responses that subjects would be

unwilling or unable to give if they knew the
purpose of the study.

Helpful when the issues to be addressed are

personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social
norms.

Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and

attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

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Disadvantages of Projective
Techniques

Suffer from many of the disadvantages of

unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater
extent.
Require highly-trained interviewers.
Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the
responses.
There is a serious risk of interpretation bias.
They tend to be expensive.
May require respondents to engage in unusual
behavior.

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Guidelines for Using

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques should be used

because the required information cannot be
accurately obtained by direct methods.

Projective techniques should be used for

exploratory research to gain initial insights
and understanding.

Given their complexity, projective techniques

should not be used naively.

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Comparison of Focus Groups, Depth

Interviews,
and Projective
Table 5.5
Techniques
Criteria
Focus
Depth
Projective
Groups
1. Degree of Structure
2. Probing of individual
respondents
3. Moderator bias
4. Interpretation bias
5. Uncovering
subconscious
information
6. Discovering
innovative
information
7. Obtaining sensitive
information
8. Involve unusual
behavior or
questioning

9. Overall usefulness

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Relatively high
Low
Relatively
medium
Relatively low
Low

Interviews
Relatively
medium
High
Relatively high

Techniques
Relatively low
Medium
Low to high
Relatively high
High

Relatively
medium Medium
to high
Low

High
High
Low

Medium
Yes

No
Medium
Highly useful
To a limited
extent

Somewhat
useful
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Analysis of Qualitative
Data
1)

Data reduction Select which aspects of the

data are to be emphasized, minimized, or set
aside for the project at hand.

2)

Data display Develop a visual interpretation of

the data with the use of such tools as a diagram,
chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate
patterns and interrelationships in the data.

3)

Conclusion drawing and verification Considers

the meaning of analyzed data and assess its
implications for the research question at hand.

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International Marketing
Research

Qualitative research is crucial

The moderator should be familiar with the language,

culture, and patterns of social interaction

Nonverbal cues (voice intonations, inflections,

gestures) are important

The size of the focus group could vary across

cultures

Focus Groups may not be appropriate in some

cultures

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International MR, cont.

Equivalence of meaning of stimuli across

cultures should be established.

Line drawings subject to fewer problems

of interpretation than photographs.

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Ethical Issues

Ethical issues related to the respondents and

the general public are of primary concern.

Disguise can violate the respondents' right to

know and result in psychological harm.

In debriefing sessions, respondents should be

informed about the true purpose and given
opportunities to ask questions.

The use of qualitative research results for

questionable purposes raises ethical concerns

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Ethical Issues, cont.

Deceptive procedures that violate

respondents right to privacy and
informed consent should be avoided
Video- or audio-taping the respondents
without their prior knowledge or consent
raises ethical concerns.
The comfort level of the respondents
should be addressed.

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