VHF Omnidirectional Range

(VOR)
Ground station oriented to magnetic
north, transmitting directional information
to aircraft
Benefits
More accurate, precise flying
Reliable
Not susceptible to interference
Voice Capable

Errors/Negatives

Costly to maintain
Line-of-sight

VOR
Omnidirectional
reference signal
Directional signal from
antenna rotating @
1800 rpm
Receiver uses phase
discrimination
Navigation in polar
Distance Measuring
coordinates (rho-theta)
Equipment (DME) & often
Tacan are colocated with
VOR

VOR Capabilities
VHF 108.0-117.95mhz
Line of sight

1 LOP at a time
2 receivers give 2 LOPs (fix)
VOR + DME = LOP & Arc (fix)

Not sensitive to aircraft heading

Fly to or from a VOR or intercept a radial
Radial courses oriented FROM the station

VOR Types
High

1,000 14,500; 40NM

14,500 18,000; 100NM
18,000 45,000; 130NM
45,000 60,000; 100NM

Low

1,000 18,000; 40NM

Terminal

1,000 12,000; 25NM

* All altitudes AGL

VOR Types

The Principle of the VOR

360

Magnetic
North

045

315

270

090

135

135

225
180

VOR receiver gives 1 LOP called a Radial

Parts of a VOR system

Receiver
Course
Deviation
Indicator
(CDI)
To/From ind.
Omni
bearing
selector

VHF Omnirange

VHF Omnirange

VHF Omnirange

Flying the VOR

Initial Tracking
Tune, Identify, Twist
Turn OBS to center needle and figure
out position (use FROM)
Note heading on top of card
If flying FROM station (radial), then turn to
that heading
If flying TO station, put reciprocal heading
on top and center, then turn to that heading

Flying the VOR

Wind Correction
Further away, more correction is needed
to get back on track
At 60NM from station, 1 = 1NM

Generally, when within 20NM, 20-30 in

direction of needle works
Once needle centers, turn back towards
original heading, but add wind
correction of 5

Flying the VOR

Station Passage
CDI will become very sensitive, and
then begin to oscillate
Flag will switch from TO/OFF/FROM

Switching Radials
During station passage, turn OBS to
new course to fly

Flying the VOR

Intercepting

If needle is alive, then turn towards it as if you

were tracking it
If full deflection, first center needle to find
what radial you are on
Twist OBS back to desired course
Parallel that course
Turn 30-60 in direction of needle, depending on
distance from station
Once needle is alive, turn back in direction of
desired course
Follow tracking procedures

Distance Measuring Equipment

(DME)
Radio signal sent out from aircraft to ground
station. Ground station interprets this signal and
sends back. Equipment in aircraft measures time
and converts to nautical miles.
Errors
Diagonal (slant-line) distance from station to aircraft
not lateral
Becomes greater the closer you get to the station
Greatest when directly over station at high altitudes
Limited number of queries

Uses

Intersections/Fixes
IAP
Groundspeed

Types of Navigation Systems

Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV

Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial

Celestial

Area Navigation (RNAV)

Generic name for a system that
permits point-to-point flight
Onboard computer that computes a
position, track, and groundspeed
VOR/DME
Loran
GPS
Inertial

LOng RAnge Navigation

(LORAN)
Collection of antennas throughout
the United States transmit signals
Aircraft receiver calculates position
based on intersection of multiple
signals

Global Positioning System

(GPS)
GPS = Global Positioning System
A space based, all-weather, jam
resistant, continuous operation,
worldwide radio navigation system.

Provides extremely accurate 3D

location data as well as velocity and
time.

GPS
System of 24 satellites, 4/5 of which are in
view at all times
Receiver uses 4 of these to determine
position of aircraft
Each satellite transmits code, which
contains satellite position and GPS time
Receiver, knowing how fast signal was
sent and at what time, calculates position

GPS Glossary
RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Monitoring
Determines if satellites are providing correct data

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System

Collection of ground receivers take satellite data and
correct it for atmospheric conditions
Works based on known position of ground stations

LAAS Local Area Augmentation System

Same as WAAS, but on a smaller, more precise scale
For terminal area around airport

LOP 1 Sphere
Single range
can lie
anywhere
on a sphere

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

R1

LOP 2 Spheres
Two ranges
will intersect
on a line,
defined by the
intersection of
two spheres

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

LOP 3 Spheres
Three spheres
intersect at a
point
Three ranges
needed to
resolve
lat/long/altitude

Courtesy of Leica Geosystems

GPS Uses
Civilian Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Surveying
Search and Rescue
Collision avoidance
Agriculture

Military Uses
Marine Navigation
Air Navigation
Rendezvous
Close Air Support
Mine Warfare
Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles (UAVs)

Inertial Navigation System

Dead-Reckoning
Self-contained source of:
Position, groundspeed, & heading
Does not even need a receiver

Cannot be jammed
Gets better with use
Applies a calibration correction
after each flight

Primitive Accelerometer
M
No Acceleration

0
Acceleration

M
0

Acceleration from the right

F = kx = ma

a = kx/m

Inertial Navigation Principles

s(t ) a (t )dt

Acceleration is vectorially summed in x, y, & z.

Output is compensated movement of the platform
& for curvature & rotation of the earth.

Inertial Navigation Systems

Early systems required precise
mechanical parts
Bigger is more accurate

Modern systems can be:

Mechanical (platform)
Simple gyros
Accurate

Electronic (strapdown)
Few moving parts
Smaller
Cheaper

Inertial Navigation Systems

Aircraft systems use
Pendulum accelerometers or MEMS
Micro-electromechanical sensors

Ring laser gyros

To measure angular change

INS complements GPS

Mechanical

Ring Laser Gyro

Types of Navigation Systems

Pilotage
Dead Reckoning
Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV

Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial

Celestial

Celestial Navigation
Advantages
No power required
Self contained
Cannot be jammed
Available everywhere

Disadvantages
Dusk & dawn only
Clear weather only
Slow for aircraft
Needs the art of nav.
Navigators skill

Requires computation
At least data entry

Circle of Equal
Altitude
DeRemer & McLean Global Navigation

Types of Errors
Error increases with distance
VOR/DME, ADF

Error increases with time

DR, Inertial

Reliability Concerns
GPS, Loran, Celestial

Human error

Which Types of Navigation are

Important to a Student Pilot?
1. Pilotage
2. Dead Reckoning
3. Radio Navigation
ADF
VOR/DME/RNAV

4. Celestial
5. Electronic Navigation
Loran
GPS
Inertial

If Something Seems Wrong,

it Probably is!
Be suspicious.
Check and recheck.
If you cannot tell your passengers
your ETA at the destination, you are
not navigating.

What can you do if youre lost?

Assume youre near your DR position
Do not assume a huge wind just came up

Use your VOR/DME or 2 VORs

Look on the chart for landmarks
Especially those that are shown small

If you miss a checkpoint, hold your

heading & look for the next one
Do not guess where you are! If all else
fails, CALL ATC (after all, YOU are
paying for it)