M-ary signaling

Binary communications sends one of only

2 levels; 0 or 1
There is another way: combine several bits
into symbols
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
Combining two bits at a time gives rise to 4
symbols; a 4-ary signaling

1999 BG Mobasseri

A few definitions

We used to work with bit length Tb. Now

we have a new parameter which we call
symbol length,T
1

Tb

1999 BG Mobasseri

Bit length-symbol length

relationship

When we combine n bits into one symbol;

the following relationships hold
T=nTb- symbol length
n=logM bits/symbol
T=TbxlogM- symbol length

All logarithms are base 2

1999 BG Mobasseri

Example

If 8 bits are combined into one symbol, the

resulting symbol is 8 times wider
Using n=8, we have M=28=256 symbols to
pick from
Symbol length T=nTb=8Tb

1999 BG Mobasseri

Defining baud

When we combine n bits into one symbol,

numerical data rate goes down by a factor
of n
We define baud as the number of
symbols/sec
Symbol rate is a fraction of bit rate
R=symbol rate=Rb/n=Rb/logM
For 8-level signaling, baud rate is 1/3 of bit
rate

1999 BG Mobasseri

Why M-ary?

Remember Nyquist bandwidth? It takes a

minimum of R/2 Hz to transmit R
pulses/sec.
If we can reduce the pulse rate, required
bandwidth goes down too
M-ary does just that. It takes Rb bits/sec
and turns it into Rb/logM pulses sec.

1999 BG Mobasseri

Issues in transmitting 9600

bits/sec

Want to transmit 9600 bits/sec. Options:

Nyquists minimum bandwidth:9600/2=4800 Hz
Full roll off raised cosine:9600 Hz

None of them fit inside the 4 KHz wide

phone lines
Go to a 16 - level signaling, M=16. Pulse
rate is reduced to
R=Rb/logM=9600/4=2400 Hz

1999 BG Mobasseri

Using 16-level signaling

Go to a 16-level signaling, M=16. Pulse rate

is then cut down to
R=Rb/logM=9600/4=2400 pulses/sec
To accommodate 2400 pulses /sec, we
have several options. Using sinc we need
only 1200 Hz. Full roll-off needs 2400Hz
Both fit within the 4 KHz phone line
bandwidth

1999 BG Mobasseri

Bandwidth efficiency

Bandwidth efficiency is defined as the

number of bits that can be transmitted
within 1 Hz of bandwidth
=Rb/BT bits/sec/Hz
In binary communication using sincs,
BT=Rb/2--> =2 bits/sec/Hz

1999 BG Mobasseri

M-ary bandwidth efficiency

In M-ary signaling , pulse rate is given by

R=Rb/logM. Full roll-off raised cosine
bandwidth is BT=R= Rb/logM.
Bandwidth efficiency is then given by
=Rb/BT=logM bits/sec/Hz
For M=2, binary we have 1 bit/sec/Hz. For
M=16, we have 4 bits/sec/Hz

1999 BG Mobasseri

10

M-ary bandwidth

Summarizing, M-ary and binary bandwidth

are related by
BM-ary=Bbinary/logM

Clearly , M-ary bandwidth is reduced by a

factor of logM compared to the binary
bandwidth

1999 BG Mobasseri

11

8-ary bandwidth

Let the bit rate be 9600 bits/sec. Binary

bandwidth is nominally equal to the bit
rate, 9600 Hz
We then go to 8-level modulation (3
bits/symbol) M-ary bandwidth is given by
BM-ary=Bbinary/logM=9600/log8=3200 Hz

1999 BG Mobasseri

12

Bandwidth efficiency
numbers

Here are some numbers

n(bits/symbol) M(levels)
1
2
2
4
3
8
4
16
8
256

1999 BG Mobasseri

(bits/sec/Hz)
1
2
3
4
8

13

Symbol energy vs. bit energy

Each symbol is made up of n bits. It is not

therefore surprising for a symbol to have n
times the energy of a bit
E(symbol)=nEb
Eb
E

1999 BG Mobasseri

14

QPSK
quadrature phase shift keying

This is a 4 level modulation.

Every two bits is combined and mapped to
one of 4 phases of an RF signal
These phases are 45o,135o,225o,315o
Symbolenergy

2E

cos 2fc t (2i 1) ,i 1,2,3, 4

si (t) T

,0 t T
4
0
Symbolwidth
1999 BG Mobasseri

15

QPSK constellation

01

00
45o
E

2
cos2fc t
T
2
2 t
sin 2fc t
T

11

10

1 t

Basisfunctions

1999 BG Mobasseri

S=[0.7E,0.7E]

16

QPSK decision regions

01

00

10

11

Decisionregionsrecolorcoded

1999 BG Mobasseri

17

QPSK error rate

Symbol error rate for QPSK is given by

E
Pe erfc(
)
2No
This brings up the distinction between
symbol error and bit error. They are not the
same!

1999 BG Mobasseri

18

Symbol error

Symbol error occurs when received vector

is assigned to the wrong partition in the
constellation
11

s2

s1

00

When s1 is mistaken for s2, 00 is mistaken

for 11
1999 BG Mobasseri

19

Symbol error vs. bit error

When a symbol error occurs, we might

suffer more than one bit error such as
mistaking 00 for 11.
It is however unlikely to have more than
one bit error when a symbol error occurs
00

10

10

11

10

00

11

10

11

10

Sym.error=1/10
Biterror=1/20

10symbols=20bits
1999 BG Mobasseri

20

Interpreting symbol error

Numerically, symbol error is larger than bit

error but in fact they are describing the
same situation; 1 error in 20 bits
In general, if Pe is symbol error
Pe
BER Pe
log M

1999 BG Mobasseri

21

Symbol error and bit error for

QPSK

We saw that symbol error for QPSK was

E
Pe erfc(
)
2No
Assuming no more than 1 bit error for each
symbol error, BER is half of symbol error
1
E
BER erfc(
)
2
2N
o
Remember symbol energy
E=2E
b

1999 BG Mobasseri

22

QPSK vs. BPSK

Lets compare the two based on BER and
bandwidth
BER
Bandwidth
BPSK
QPSK
BPSK
QPSK

1
erfc
2

Eb 1

N o 2 erfc

Eb

N o

Rb

Rb/2

EQUAL

1999 BG Mobasseri

23

M-phase PSK (MPSK)

If you combine 3 bits into one symbol, we

have to realize 23=8 states. We can
accomplish this with a single RF pulse
taking 8 different phases 45o apart

2E

cos 2fc t (i 1) ,i 1,...,8

si (t) T

,0 t T
4
0

1999 BG Mobasseri

24

8-PSK constellation

Distribute 8 phasors uniformly around a

circle of radius E
45o

Decisionregion

1999 BG Mobasseri

25

Symbol error for MPSK

We can have M phases around the circle

separated by 2/M radians.
It can be shown that symbol error
probability is approximately given by

Pe erfc

, M 4
sin

No
M

1999 BG Mobasseri

26

Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)

MPSK was a phase modulation scheme. All

amplitudes are the same
QAM is described by a constellation
consisting of combination of phase and
amplitudes
The rule governing bits-to-symbols are the
same, i.e. n bits are mapped to M=2n
symbols

1999 BG Mobasseri

27

16-QAM constellation using

Gray coding
16-QAM has the following constellation
Note gray coding
0000
0001
0011
where adjacent symbols
differ by only 1 bit
1000
1001
1011

0010
1010

1100

1101

1111

1110

0100

0101

0111

0110

1999 BG Mobasseri

28

Vector representation
of 16-QAM

There are 16 vectors, each defined by a

pair of coordinates. The following 4x4
matrix describes the 16-QAM constellation

3,3 1,3 1,3 3,3

3,1
1,1
1,1
3,1
[ai ,bi ]
3,1 1, 1 1, 1 3,1

3, 3 1,3 1,3 3, 3

1999 BG Mobasseri

29

What is energy per symbol in

QAM?

We had no trouble defining energy per

symbol E for MPSK. For QAM, there is no
single symbol energy. There are many
We therefore need to define average
symbol energy Eavg
Eavg

1 M 2
ai bi2
M i 1

1999 BG Mobasseri

30

Eavg for 16-QAM

Using the [ai,bi] matrix and using

E=ai^2+bi^2 we get one energy per signal
18 10 10
10 2 2
E
10 2 2

18 10 10

18
10
10

18

Eavg=10
1999 BG Mobasseri

31

Symbol error for M-ary QAM

With the definition of energy in mind,

symbol error is approximated by
2Eavg

Pe 2 1
erfc

M
2 M 1No

1999 BG Mobasseri

32

Familiar constellations

Here are a few golden oldies

V.22
600baud
1200bps

V.22bis
600baud
2400bps
1999 BG Mobasseri

V.32bis
2400baud
9600bps
33

M-ary FSK

Using M tones, instead of M

phases/amplitudes is a fundamentally
different way of M-ary modulation
The idea is to use M RF pulses. The
frequencies chosen must be orthogonal
2E
si t
cos2fi t ,0 t T
T
i 1,..., M

1999 BG Mobasseri

34

MFSK constellation:
3-dimensions
MFSK is different from MPSK in that each
signal sits on an orthogonal axis(basis)
3 s3
2
i t
cos2fi t ,
E
T
s1=[E,0,0]
s2=[0,E,0]
0t T
s3=[0,0,E]
i 1,..., M

E
s1

E
2

s2

1999 BG Mobasseri

35

Orthogonal signals:
How many dimensions, how many
signals?

We just saw that in a 3 dimensional space,

we can have no more than 3 orthogonal
signals
Equivalently, 3 orthogonal signals dont
need more than 3 dimensions because
each can sit on one dimension
Therefore, number of dimensions is always
less than or equal to number of signals

1999 BG Mobasseri

36

How to pick the tones?

Orthogonal FSK requires tones that are

orthogonal.
Two carrier frequencies separated by
integer multiples of period are orthogonal

1999 BG Mobasseri

37

Example

Take two tones one at f1 the other at f2. T

must cover one or more periods for the
integral to be zero
T

2 cos2f t cos2f t dt cos 2 f

1

f2 dt
0 4 4
1
4 2 4 4 43
1

averagestozero

cos2 f1 f2 dt
0
1
4 44 2 4 4 43

averagestozeroifT=i/(f1 f2)
;i=integer

Takef1=1000andT=1/1000.Then
iff2=2000,thetwoareorthogonal
sowillf2=3000,4000etc

1999 BG Mobasseri

38

MFSK symbol error

Here is the error expression with the usual

notations

1
E

Pe M 1erfc
2
2N o

1999 BG Mobasseri

39

Spectrum of M-ary signals

So far Eb/No, i.e. power, has been our main

concern. The flip side of the coin is
bandwidth.
Frequently the two move in opposite
directions
Lets first look at binary modulation
bandwidth

1999 BG Mobasseri

40

BPSK bandwidth

Remember BPSK was obtained from a

polar signal by carrier modulation
We know the bandwidth of polar NRZ using
square pulses was BT=Rb.
It doesnt take much to realize that carrier
modulation doubles this bandwidth

1999 BG Mobasseri

41

Illustrating BPSK bandwidth

The expression for baseband BPSK (polar)
bandwidth is
SB(f)=2Ebsinc2(Tbf)

2/Tb=2Rb

BPSK

1/Tb

BT=2Rb

fc/Tb

1999 BG Mobasseri

fc

fc+/Tb

42

BFSK as a sum of two RF

streams
BFSK can be thought of superposition of
two unipolar signals, one at f1 and the
other at f2

0.5

BFSK for 1 0 0 1 0 1 1

0.8
0.6

-0.5

0.4

-1

0.2

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

-0.2
-0.4

0.5

-0.6

-0.8
-1

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

-0.5
-1

1999 BG Mobasseri

43

Modeling of BFSK bandwidth

Each stream is just a carrier modulated

unipolar signal. Each has a sinc spectrum

1/Tb=Rb

BT=2f+2Rb
f=(f2f1)/2
f1

fc

f2

fc=(f1+f2)/2
1999 BG Mobasseri

44

Example: 1200 bps bandwidth

The old 1200 bps standard used BFSK

modulation using 1200 Hz for mark and
2200 Hz for space. What is the bandwidth?
Use
BT=2f+2Rb
f=(f2-f1)/2=(2200-1200)/2=500 Hz
BT=2x500+2x1200=3400 Hz

This is more than BPSK of 2Rb=2400 Hz

1999 BG Mobasseri

45

Sundes FSK

We might have to pick tones f1 and f2 that

are not orthogonal. In such a case there
will be a finite correlation between the
tones

2 b
cos(2f1t) cos(2f2 t)dt
Tb 0

Goodpoints,zerocorrelation

1999 BG Mobasseri

2(f2f1)Tb
46

Picking the 2nd zero crossing:

Sundes FSK

If we pick the second zc term (the first

term puts the tones too close) we get
2(f2-f1)Tb=2--> f=1/2Tb=Rb/2

remember f is (f2-f1)/2

Sundes FSK bandwidth is then given by

BT=2f+2Rb=Rb+2Rb=3Rb
The practical bandwidth is a lot smaller

1999 BG Mobasseri

47

Sundes FSK bandwidth

Due to sidelobe cancellation, practical

bandwidth is just BT=2f=Rb

1/Tb=Rb

BT=2f+2Rb
f=(f2f1)/2
f1

fc

f2

fc=(f1+f2)/2
1999 BG Mobasseri

48

BFSK example

A BFSK system operates at the 3rd zero

crossing of -Tb plane. If the bit rate is 1
Mbps, what is the frequency separation of
the tones?
The 3rd zc is for 2(f2-f1)Tb=3. Recalling that
f=(f2-f1)/2 then f =0.75/Tb

Then f =0.75/Tb=0.75x106=750 KHz

And BT=2(f +Rb)=2(0.75+1)106=3.5 MHz

1999 BG Mobasseri

49

Point to remember

FSK is not a particularly bandwidthfriendly modulation. In this example, to

transmit 1 Mbps, we needed 3.5 MHz.
Of course, it is working at the 3rd zero
crossing that is responsible
Original Sundes FSK requires BT=Rb=1 MHz

1999 BG Mobasseri

50

Bandwidth of MPSK
modulation

MPSK bandwidth review

In MPSK we used pulses that are log2M

times wider tan binary hence bandwidth
goes down by the same factor.
T=symbol width=Tblog2M
For example, in a 16-phase modulation,
M=16, T=4Tb.
Bqpsk=Bbpsk/log2M= Bbpsk/4

1999 BG Mobasseri

52

MPSK bandwidth

MPSK spectrum is given by

SB(f)=(2Eblog2M)sinc2(Tbflog2M)
Setto1forzerocrossingBW
Tbflog2M=1
>f=1/Tbflog2M
=Rb/log2M
1/logM

BT=Rb/log2M

f/Rb

Noticenormalizedfrequency
1999 BG Mobasseri

53

Bandwidth after carrier

modulation

What we just saw is MPSK bandwidth in

baseband
A true MPSK is carrier modulated. This will
only double the bandwidth. Therefore,
Bmpsk=2Rb/log2M

1999 BG Mobasseri

54

QPSK bandwidth

QPSK is a special case of MPSK with M=4

phases. Its baseband spectrum is given by
SB(f)=2Esinc2(2Tbf)

B=0.5Rb>
halfofBPSK
0.5

f/Rb

1999 BG Mobasseri

Aftermodulation:
Bqpsk=Rb

55

Some numbers

Take a 9600 bits/sec data stream

Using BPSK: B=2Rb=19,200 Hz (too much
for 4KHz analog phone lines)
QPSK: B=19200/log24=9600Hz, still high
Use 8PSK:B= 19200/log28=6400Hz
Use 16PSK:B=19200/ log216=4800 Hz. This
may barely fit

1999 BG Mobasseri

56

MPSK vs.BPSK

M
4
8
16
32

Lets say we fix BER at some level. How do

bandwidth and power levels compare?
Bm-ary/Bbinary
(Avg.power)M/(Avg.power)bin
0.5
0.34 dB
1/3
3.91 dB
1/4
8.52 dB
1/5
13.52 dB
Lesson: By going to multiphase modulation, we save
bandwidth but have to pay in increased power, But why?

1999 BG Mobasseri

57

Power-bandwidth tradeoff

The goal is to keep BER fixed as we

increase M. Consider an 8PSK set.

What happens if you go to 16PSK? Signals

get closer hence higher BER
Solution: go to a larger circle-->higher
energy
1999 BG Mobasseri

58

Additional comparisons

Take a 28.8 Kb/sec data rate and lets

compare the required bandwidths
BPSK: BT=2(Rb)=57.6 KHz
BFSK: BT = Rb =28.8 KHz ...Sundes FSK
QPSK: BT=half of BPSK=28.8 KHz
16-PSK: BT=quarter of BPSK=14.4 KHz
64-PSK: BT=1/6 of BPSK=9.6 KHz

1999 BG Mobasseri

59

Power-limited systems

Modulations that are power-limited achieve

their goals with minimum expenditure of
power at the expense of bandwidth.
Examples are MFSK and other orthogonal
signaling

1999 BG Mobasseri

60

Bandwidth-limited systems

Modulations that achieve error rates at a

minimum expenditure of bandwidth but
possibly at the expense of too high a
power are bandwidth-limited
Examples are variations of MPSK and
many QAM
Check BER rate curves for BFSK and
BPSK/QAM cases

1999 BG Mobasseri

61

Bandwidth efficiency index

A while back we defined the following ratio

as a bandwidth efficiency measure in
bits/sec/HZ
=Rb/BT bits/sec/Hz
Every digital modulation has its own

1999 BG Mobasseri

62

 for MPSK

At a bit rate of Rb, BPSK bandwidth is 2Rb

When we go to MPSK, bandwidth goes
down by a factor of log2M
BT=2Rb/ log2M

Then
=Rb/BT= log2M/2 bits/sec/Hz

1999 BG Mobasseri

63

Some numbers
Lets evaluate vs. M for MPSK
M2 4
8
16
32
64
.5 1
1.5 2
2.5 3
Notice that bits/sec/Hz goes up by a factor
of 6 from M=2 and M=64
The price we pay is that if power level is
fixed (constellation radius fixed) BER will
go up. We need more power to keep BER
the same

1999 BG Mobasseri

64

Defining MFSK:

In MFSK we transmit one of M frequencies

for every symbol duration T
These frequencies must be orthogonal.
One way to do that is to space them 1/2T
apart. They could also be spaced 1/T
apart. Following The textbook we choose
the former (this corresponds to using the
first zero crossing of correlation curve)

1999 BG Mobasseri

65

MFSK bandwidth

Symbol duration in MFSK is M times longer

than binary
T=Tblog2M symbol length
Each pair of tones are separated by 1/2T. If
there are M of them,
BT=M/2T=M/2Tblog2M
-->BT=MRb/2log2M

1999 BG Mobasseri

66

Contrast with MPSK

Variation of bandwidth with M differs

drastically compared to MPSK
MPSK
MFSK
BT=2Rb/log2M
BT=MRb/2log2M
As M goes up, MFSK eats up more
bandwidth but MPSK save bandwidth

1999 BG Mobasseri

67

MFSK bandwidth efficiency

Lets compute s for MFSK

=Rb/M=2log2M/M bits/sec/HzMFSK
2
4
8
16
32
64
1
1
.75 .5
.3
.18
Notice bandwidth efficiency drop. We are
sending fewer and fewer bits per 1 Hz of
bandwidth

1999 BG Mobasseri

68

COMPARISON OF DIGITAL
MODULATIONS*

*B. Sklar, Defining, Designing and Evaluating Digital Communication Systems,

IEEE Communication Magazine, vol. 31, no.11, November 1993, pp. 92-101

Notations

M 2 # ofsymbols
m

m = log2 Mbits/symbol

Bandwidth efficiency
measure

m log2 M
R=
bits/ sec
Ts
Ts

R log2 M
1

W
WTs
WTb

Ts symbolduration
Rs symbolrate
1 Ts
1
Tb
bitlength
R m mRs
1999 BG Mobasseri

70

Bandwidth-limited Systems

There are situations where bandwidth is at

a premium, therefore, we need
modulations with large R/W.
Hence we need standards with large timebandwidth product
The GSM standard uses Gaussian minimum
shift keying(GMSK) with WTb=0.3

1999 BG Mobasseri

71

Case of MPSK

In MPSK, symbols are m times as wide as

binary.
Nyquist bandwidth is W=Rs/2=1/2Ts.
However, the bandpass bandwidth is twice
that, W=1/Ts
Then

R log2 M

log 2 Mbits/sec/Hz
W
WTs
1999 BG Mobasseri

72

Cost of Bandwidth Efficiency

As M increases, modulation becomes more

bandwidth efficient.
Lets fix BER. To maintain this BER while
increasing M requires an increase in Eb/No.

1999 BG Mobasseri

73

Power-Limited Systems

There are cases that bandwidth is

available but power is limited
In these cases as M goes up, the
bandwidth increases but required power
levels to meet a specified BER remains
stable

1999 BG Mobasseri

74

Case of MFSK

MFSK is an orthogonal modulation scheme.

Nyquist bandwidth is M-times the binary
case because of using M orthogonal
frequencies, W=M/Ts=MRs
Then

R log2 M log 2 M

bits/sec/Hz
W
WTs
M

1999 BG Mobasseri

75

Select an Appropriate
Modulation

We have a channel of 4KHz with an

available S/No=53 dB-Hz
Required data rate R=9600 bits/sec.
Required BER=10-5.
Choose a modulation scheme to meet
these requirements

1999 BG Mobasseri

76

Minimum Number of Phases

To conserve power, we should pick the

minimum number of phases that still meets
the 4KHz bandwidth
A 9600 bits/sec if encoded as 8-PSK
results in 3200 symbols/sec needing
3200Hz
So, M=8

1999 BG Mobasseri

77

What is the required Eb/No?

S Eb R Eb

R
No
No
No
Eb
S
(dB) (dB Hz) R(dB bits / sec
No
No
13.2dB

1999 BG Mobasseri

78

Is BER met? Yes

The symbol error probability in 8-PSK is

2Es
PE M 2Q
sin
M
No
Solve for Es/No
Es
Eb
Solve for PE log 2 M 3 20.89 62.67
No
N0
PE
2.2 10 5
BER

7.3 10 6
log 2 M
3
1999 BG Mobasseri

79

Power-limited uncoded
system

Same bit rate and BER

Available bandwidth W=45 KHz
Available S/No=48-dBHz
Choose a modulation scheme that yields
the required performance

1999 BG Mobasseri

80

Binary vs. M-ary Model

R bits/s

M-ary Modulator

R
Rs
symbols / s
log 2 M

M-ary demodulator

S
Eb
Es

R
Rs
N o No
No
1999 BG Mobasseri

81

Choice of Modulation

With R=9600 bits/sec and W=45 KHz, the

channel is not bandwidth limited
Lets find the available Eb/No
Eb
S
(dB) dB Hz R(dB bit / s)
No
No
Eb
(dB) 48dB Hz
No
(10 log 9600)dB bits / s
8.2dB
1999 BG Mobasseri

82

Choose MFSK

We have a lot of bandwidth but little power

->orthogonal modulation(MFSK)
The larger the M, the more power
efficiency but more bandwidth is needed
Pick the largest M without going beyond
the 45 KHz bandwidth.

1999 BG Mobasseri

83

MFSK Parameters

From Table 1, M=16 for an MFSK

modulation requires a bandwidth of 38.4
KHz for 9600 bits/sec data rate
We also wanted to have a BER<10^-5.
Question is if this is met for a 16FSK
modulation.

1999 BG Mobasseri

84

16-FSK

Again from Table 1, to achieve BER of 10^5 we need Eb/No of 8.1dB.

We solved for the available Eb/No and that
came to 8.2dB

1999 BG Mobasseri

85

Symbol error for MFSK

For noncoherent orthogonal MFSK, symbol

error probability is

M 1
Es

PE M
exp
2
2 No
Es Eb log 2 M

1999 BG Mobasseri

86

BER for MFSK

We found out that Eb/No=8.2dB or 6.61

Relating Es/No and Eb/No
Es
Eb
log 2 M
No
No
BER and symbol error are related by
2 m 1
PB m
PE
2 1
1999 BG Mobasseri

87

Example

Lets look at the 16FSK case. With 16

levels, we are talking about m=4 bits per
symbol. Therefore,
23
8
PB 4
PE PE
2 symbol
1
15 error prob.
With Es/No=26.44,
PE=1.4x10^-5-->PB=7.3x10^-6

1999 BG Mobasseri

88

Summary

Given:

R=9600 bits/s
BER=10^-5
Channel bandwith=45
KHz
Eb/No=8.2dB

Solution
16-FSK
required bw=38.4khz
required Eb/No=8.1dB

1999 BG Mobasseri

89