The simplifed momentum equations

Height coordinates

Pressure coordinates

du
1 P

fv
dt
x

du

fv
dt
x

dv
1 P

fu
dt
y

dv

fu
dt
y

du
1 P
2u

K 2 fv
dt
x
z

du

2u

K 2 fv
dt
x
z

dv
1 P
2v

K 2 fu
dt
y
z

dv

2v

K 2 fu
dt
y
z

P Pg

z Rd T

RT

d
p
p

In this section we will derive the four most important

relationships describing atmospheric structure
1. Hydrostatic Balance: the vertical force balance in the
atmosphere
2. The Hypsometric Equation: the relationship between the
virtual temperature of a layer and the layers thickness
3. Geostrophic Balance: the most fundamental horizontal
force balance in the atmosphere
4. Thermal wind Balance: a relationship between the wind at
an upper level of the atmosphere and the temperature
gradient below that level

We will then expand our understanding of balanced

flow to include more complicated force balances in
horizontal flows
1. Geostrophic Flow: the flow resulting from a balance
between the PGF and Coriolis force in straight flow
2. Inertial Flow: curved flow resulting when the Coriolis
force balances the Centrifugal force
3. Cyclostrophic Flow: Flow that results when the pressure
gradient force balances the Centrifugal force
4. Gradient flow: Flow that results when the pressure
gradient force and Coriolis force balance the Centrifugal
force

Virtual Temperature:

The temperature that a parcel of dry air

would have if it were at the same pressure and had the same density
as moist air.
P = pressure
= dry air density
Derivation:
d

Start with ideal gas law for moist air:

P RT
P d Rd T v RvT

v = vapor density
= air density
R= gas constant
Rv = vapor gas constant
Rd = dry air gas constant
T = Temperature

Now treat moist air as if it were dry by introducing the virtual temperature Tv

P d Rd v Rv T d v Rd Tv Rd Tv
What is the relationship between the temperature, T
And the virtual temperature Tv?

 d Rd v Rv T d v Rd Tv
Write:

Mv
Md
Md Mv
Rd
Rv T

Rd Tv
V
V
V

M = mass of air
Md = mass of dry air
Mv = mass of vapor
V = volume

Multiply and divide second term by Rd

Md
M v Rd Rv
Md Mv

T
Rd

Rd Tv
V Rd
V
V
V
Cancel Rd and rearrange
M d M v Rv

V
V Rd

Tv
Md Mv

V
V

From last page:

M d M v Rv

V
V Rd
Tv
Md Mv

V
V

Cancel V, and divide top and bottom terms by Md:

Tv

M v Rv
1
M d Rd
Mv
1
Md

Introduce mixing ratio: rv = Mv/Md and let = Rd/Rv

Tv

1
1 rv

1 rv

From last page:

1
1 rv

1 rv

Tv

Approximate (1+rv)-1 = 1- rv and use 1/ = 1.61

Tv 1 rv 1 1.61rv T 1 rv 1.61rv 1.61rv2 T

Neglect rv2 term

Tv 1 0.61rv T

HYDROSTATIC BALANCE

1 P
g
z

The atmosphere is in hydrostatic

balance essentially everywhere
except in core regions of significant
storms such as hurricanes and
thunderstorms

The Hypsometric Equation

Consider a column of atmosphere
that is 1 m by 1 m in area and
extends from sea level to space
Lets isolate the part of this
column that extends between the
1000 hPa surface and the 500 hPa
surface
How much mass is in the column?

100 N m 2

1
1 m 2
5102.04 kg
Mass (1000 500) hPa
2
hPa
9.81 m s

How thick is the column? That depends

P
g
z

Hydrostatic equation

p Rd Tv

Ideal Gas Law

Substitute ideal gas law into hydrostatic equation

Rd Tv p
z
g p
Integrate this equation between two levels (p 2, z2) and (p1, z1)
z2

p2

Rd Tv p
z z p g p
1
1

z2

p2

Rd Tv p
z z p g p
1
1

z2

z1

From previous page

p1

Rd Tv
p g ln p
2

Problem: Tv varies with altitude. To perform the integral

on the right we have to consider the pressure weighted
column average virtual temperature given by:
We can then integrate to give

p1

T ln p
v

Tv

p2
p1

ln p

p2

Rd Tv p1

z 2 z1
ln
g
p2

This equation is called the Hypsometric Equation

The equation relates the thickness of a layer of air between two
pressure levels to the average virtual temperature of the layer

Geopotential Height
We can express the hypsometric (and hydrostatic) equation in
terms of a quantity called the geopotential height
Geopotential (): Work (energy) required to raise a unit mass a
distance dz above sea level

d gdz
p1

Rd Tv ln
p2
Meteorologists often refer to geopotential height because this quantity is directly
associated with energy to vertically displace air

Geopotential Height (Z):

gz

g0 g0

g0 is the globally averaged

Value of gravity at sea level

For practical purposes, Z and z are about the same in the troposphere

Atmospheric pressure varies exponentially with altitude, but very slowly on

a horizontal plane as a result, a map of surface (station) pressure looks like
a map of altitude above sea level.

variation of pressure
with altitude

observed surface pressure

over central North America

Station pressures are measured at locations worldwide

Analysis of horizontal pressure fields, which are responsible for
the earths winds and are critical to analysis of weather systems,
requires that station pressures be converted to a common level,
which, by convention, is mean sea level.

Reduction of station pressure to sea level pressure:

p SL

0
dp
g
Integrate hypsometric equation

dz (4)

sea level pressure (PSL)

p z RTv
p
to station pressure (PSTN)
g
and right side from z = 0
ln pSL ln pSTN
z STN (5)
Rd Tv
to station altitude (ZSTN).
STA

STA

BUT WHAT IS Tv? WE HAVE ASSUMED A FICTICIOUS

ATMOSPHERE THAT IS BELOW GROUND!!!

National Weather Service Procedure to estimate Tv

1. Assume Tv = T
2. Assume a mean surface temperature = average of
current temperature and temperature 12 hours earlier
to eliminate diurnal effects.
3. Assume temperature increases between the station and sea level of
6.5oC/km to determine TSL.
4. Determine average T and then PSL.
In practice, PSL is determined using a table of R values, where
R is the ratio of station pressure to sea level pressure, and the table
contains station pressures and average temperatures.
Table contains a plateau correction to try to compensate
for variations in annual mean sea level pressures calculated for
nearby stations.

Implications of hypsometric equation

Rd Tv p1

z
ln
g
p2

1
1
Consider the 1000500 hPa thickness field. Using Rd 287 J kg K
g 9.81 m s 2

LayerThickness 20.3Tv meters

LayerThickness 20.3 Tv meters
Ballpark number: A decrease in average 1000-500 hPa layer
temperature of 1K leads to a reduction in thickness of the layer of
60 hPa

Implications of Hypsometric Equation

A cold core weather system (one which has lower temperature

at its center) will winds that increase with altitude

How steep is the slope of

The 850 mb pressure surface
in the middle latitudes?

1200 meters @ 80oN

1630 meters @ 40oN

40o 60 nautical miles/deg 1.85 km/nautical mile = 4452 km
Slope = 430 m/4452000 m ~ 1/10,000 ~ 1 meter/10 km

How steep is the slope of

The 250 mb pressure surface
in the middle latitudes?

9,720 meters @ 80oN

10,720 meters @ 40oN

40o 60 nautical miles/deg 1.85 km/nautical mile = 4452 km
Slope = 1000 m/4452000 m ~ 1/4,000 ~ 1 meter/4 km

GEOSTROPHIC BALANCE
0

du
1 p

fv
dt
x

dv
1 p

fu
dt
y

A state of balance between

the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force
Geostrophic balance

Air is in geostrophic balance if and only if air is not accelerating (speeding

up, slowing down, or changing direction).
For geostrophic balance to exist, isobars (or height lines on a constant pressure
chart) must be straight, and their spacing cannot vary.

Geostrophic wind
ug

1 p
f y

vg

1 p
f x

The wind that would exist if air was in geostrophic balance

The Geostrophic wind is a function of the pressure gradient and latitude

In pressure coordinates, the geostrophic relationships are given by

ug

1
f y

1
vg
f x

Where on this map of the 300 mb surface is the air in geostrophic balance?

Geostrophic Balance and the Jetstream

ug

Take p derivative:

Substitute hydrostatic eqn

RT
d
P
p

1
f y

u g

p
f y P
u g

Rd T

p
fp y

1
f x

vg
v g
p

f x P

v g

Rd T

P
fP x

THE RATE OF CHANGE OF THE GEOSTROPHIC WIND WITH

HEIGHT (PRESSURE) WITHIN A LAYER IS PROPORTIONAL TO
THE HORIZONTAL TEMPERATURE GRADIENT WITHIN THE LAYER

u g

R T
d
p
fp y

v g
P

Rd T
fP x

We can write these two equations in vector form as

Vg
p

Rd
k T
fp

or alternatively

p
f
P

Vg

The Thermal Wind vector

The Thermal Wind is not a wind! It is a vector that is parallel to the

mean isotherms in a layer between two pressure surfaces and its
magnitude is proportional to the thermal gradient within the layer.
When the thermal wind vector is added to the geostrophic wind vector at
a lower pressure level, the result is the geostrophic wind at the higher
pressure level

A horizontal temperature
gradient leads to a greater
slope of the pressure
surfaces above the
temperature gradient.

More steeply sloped pressure

surfaces imply that a stronger
pressure gradient will exist
aloft, and therefore a stronger
geostrophic wind.

Note the position of the front at 850 mb

.and the jetstream at 300 mb.

Implications of geostrophic wind veering (turning clockwise)

and backing (turning counterclockwise) with height

Warm air
Cold air

Winds veering with height warm advection

Implications of thermal wind

relationship for the jetstream

Note the position of the jet

over the strongest gradient
in potential temperature
(dashed lines) (which
corresponds to the strongest
temperature gradient)

Implication of the thermal wind equation for the general circulation

Upper level winds must be generally westerly in both hemispheres
since it is coldest at the poles and warmest at the equator

Natural Coordinates and Balanced Flows

To understand some simple properties of flows, lets
consider atmospheric flow that is frictionless and
horizontal

We will examine this flow in a new coordinate system called Natural Coordinates

In this coordinate
system:
the unit vector i is everywhere parallel to the flow and positive along the flow

the unit vector n is everywhere normal to the flow and positive to the left of the flow


The velocity vector is given by: V Vi
ds
The magnitude of the velocity
vector
is
given
by:
V

dt
measure of distance in the i direction.

dV dV
di
The acceleration vector is given by:
i
V
dt
dt
dt

where s is the

where the change of i with time is related to the flow curvature.

dV
dV
di
i
V
dt
dt
dt
We need to determine

di
dt

s i

i
The angle
is given by
R i
Where R is the radius of curvature following parcel motion

R0
R0

n directed toward center of curve (counterclockwise flow)

n directed toward outside of curve (clockwise flow)


s
i
R

i 1

s R

lim i di 1

n
s 0 s
ds R

Note here that i points in the positive n

direction in the limit that s approaches 0.

di di ds n
V

V n
dt ds dt R
R

dV dV
di
i
V
dt
dt
dt

2
dV dV V
i
n
dt
dt
R

Lets now consider the other components of the momentum

equation, the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis Force

Coriolis Force:

PGF:

fk V fVn

Since the Coriolis force is always

directed to the right of the motion

p
i
n
n
s

Since the pressure gradient force

has components in both directions

The equation of motion can therefore be written as:

2
dV V

i
n
i
n fVn
dt
R
n
s


2
dV V

i
n
i
n fVn
dt
R
n
s

Lets break this up into component equations:

dV

dt
s

V2

fV
0
R
n
To understand the nature of basic flows in the atmosphere we will assume
that the speed of the flow is constant and parallel to the height contours
so that

dV

0
dt
s

Under these conditions, the flow is uniquely described

by the equation in the yellow box

V2

fV
0
R
n
Centrifugal Force

PGF

Coriolis Force

Geostrophic Balance: PGF = COR

Inertial Balance:

CEN = COR

Cyclostrophic Balance CEN = PGF

Gradient Balance

CEN = PGF + COR

V2

fV
0
R
n

Geostrophic flow
Geostrophic flow occurs when the PGF = COR, implying that R
For geostrophic flow to occur the flow must be straight and parallel to the isobars

1
Vg
f n

Pure geostrophic flow is

uncommon in the atmosphere

V2

fV
0
R
n

Inertial flow
Inertial flow occurs in the absence of a PGF, rare in the atmosphere but
common in the oceans where wind stress drives currents

V
f

This type of flow follows circular, anticyclonic paths since R is negative

Time to complete a circle:

is one half rotation

is one full rotation/day

2R 2R 2
2

V
fR
f
2 sin
sin

0.5 day

sin
sin

called a half-pendulum day

Power Spectrum of
kinetic energy at 30 m
in the ocean near
Barbados (13N)

0.5 day
2.23 days
sin 13

V2

fV
0
R
n

Cyclostrophic flow
Flows where Coriolis force exhibits little influence on motions (e.g. Tornado)

V2

R
n
V2

R
n

V R
n

1
2


V R
n

1
2

Cyclostrophic flows can occur when the Centrifugal force far exceeds the Coriolis force

V2 /R V

fV
fR

, a number called the Rossby number

A synoptic scale wave:

A tornado:
Venus (rotates every 243 days):

V
10 m s 1
4 1 6 0.1
fR 10 s 10 m

NO

V
100 m s 1
4 1 3 1000
fR 10 s 10 m

YES

V
100 m s 1
7 1 7 100
fR 10 s 10 m

YES

V R
n

1
2

In cyclostrophic flow around a low, circulation can rotate

clockwise or counterclockwise (cyclonic and anticyclonic
tornadoes and smaller vortices are observed)
WHAT ABOUT A HIGH???

Venus has a form of cyclostrophic flow, but

more is going on that we dont understand

V2

fV
0
R
n

Gradient flow
f

1
4
R
2

fR f R


R
2 4
n
2

1/ 2

This expression has a number of mathematically

possible solutions, not all of which conform to reality


n
the unit vector is everywhere normal to the flow and positive to the left of the flow
is the geopotential height

n
is the height gradient in the direction of

R is the radius of curvature following parcel motion

R0
R0

n directed toward center of curve (counterclockwise flow)

n directed toward outside of curve (clockwise flow)

V is always positive in the natural coordinate system

fR f R

R
2 4
n
2

Solutions for

0, R 0
n

1/ 2

f 2R2

For radical to be positive

R
4
n

fR f 2 R 2

R
Therefore:

2 4
n

1/ 2

must be negative.

V = negative = UNPHYSICAL

V
Solutions for

fR f R


R
2 4
n

0, R 0
n

Anticyclonic R 0

n outward

Increasing in n direction (low)

Radical >

1/ 2

fR Positive root physical

2 Negative root unphysical

Called an anomalous low it is rarely

observed (technically since f is never 0 in
mid-latitudes, anticyclonic tornadoes are
actually anomalous lows

V
Solutions for
Cyclonic

n inward

fR f R


R
2 4
n

0, R 0
n

Radical >

1/ 2

fR Positive root physical

2 Negative root unphysical

R0

decreasing in n direction (low)

Called an regular low it is commonly

observed (synoptic scale lows to cyclonically
rotating dust devils all fit this category

V
Solutions for
Cyclonic

n inward

fR f R


R
2 4
n

0, R 0
n

Radical >

1/ 2

fR Positive root physical

2 Negative root unphysical

R0

decreasing in n direction (low)

Called an regular low it is commonly

observed (synoptic scale lows to cyclonically
rotating dust devils all fit this category

V
Solutions for
Antiyclonic

n outward

fR f R


R
2 4
n
2

1/ 2

Positive Root

0, R 0
n
R0

f 2R2

R
4
n

or radical is imaginary

2
therefore V fR or 2 V fV

decreasing in n direction (high)

Called an anomalous high : Coriolis force never

observed to be < twice the centrifugal force

V
Solutions for
Antiyclonic

n outward

fR f R


R
2 4
n

0, R 0
n
R0

decreasing in n direction (high)

1/ 2

Negative Root

f 2R2

R
4
n

or radical is imaginary

Called a regular high : Coriolis force exceeds

the centrifugal force

Condition for both regular and anomalous highs

f 2R2

R
0
4
n
f 2R2

R
4
n
2
f R

n
4

This is a strong constraint on the magnitude of the

pressure gradient force in the vicinity of high pressure
systems
Close to the high, the pressure gradient must be weak,
and must disappear at the high center

Note pressure gradients in vicinity of highs and lows

The ageostrophic wind in natural coordinates

V2

fV
0
R
n
1
Vg
f n

V2
f V Vg 0
R
Vg
V

V
fR

For cyclonic flow (R > 0) gradient wind is less than geostrophic wind
For anticyclonic flow (R < 0) gradient wind is greater than geostrophic wind

V Vg

V Vg

V Vg

Convergence occurs downstream of ridges

and divergence downstream of troughs