Chapter 13

Building Construction

Introduction
Fire departments pride themselves in
ability to launch aggressive interior
structural attacks
Often, buildings collapse without a
visual warning
Firefighters must understand how fire
travels
Departments need more training on
building construction
13.2

Building Construction
Terms and Mechanics
Firefighters need understanding of
concepts associated with construction
Intended use of building can add
tremendous weight
Elements create building loading
Imposition of loads causes stress
called force
Forces delivered to earth for building
to be structurally sound
13.3

Types of Loads
Two broad categories:
Dead loads
Live loads

Specific terms for dead loads and

live loads:

Concentrated load
Distributed load
Design load
Undesigned load
Fire load
13.4

Figure 13-2 The steel stairs and air-conditioning unit apply a

concentrated load on this roof structure. Also note the
potential instability of the air-conditioning unit placed on
cement blocks.

13.5

Imposition of Loads
Loads must be transmitted to
structural elements
Terms associated with imposition:
Axial load
Eccentric load
Torsion load

13.6

Figure 13-5 There are three types of loads that can be

transmitted through a structural member: axial, eccentric, and
torsion.

13.7

Forces
Loads imposed on materials create
stress
Stress and strain: defined as forces
applied to materials:
Compression
Tension
Shear

Several variables determine amount

of time a material can resist gravity
and fire degradation
13.8

Figure 13-6 Loads are applied to a structural member

as compression, tension, and shear forces.

13.9

Forces (contd.)
Several variables determine amount
of time a material can resist gravity
and fire degradation

Material type and mass

Surface-to-mass ratio
Overall load being imposed
BTU development
Type of construction (assembly method)

13.10

Forces (contd.)
More variables
Alterations (undersigned loading)
Age deterioration/care and maintenance
of the structure
Firefighting impact loads
Condition of fire-resistive barriers

13.11

Structural Elements
Buildings are an assembly of
structural elements designed to
transfer loads to the earth
Can be defined simply as:

Beams
Columns
Walls
Connections

13.12

Beams
Transfers loads perpendicular to its
length
Types of beams:

Simple beam
Continuous beam
Cantilever beam
Lintel
Girder
Joist
Truss and Purlin
13.13

Figure 13-7 A beam transfers a load perpendicular to

the loadcreating compressive and tensile forces
within the beam.

13.14

Columns
Any structural component that
transmits a compressive force
parallel through its center
Typically support beams and other
columns
Generally vertical supports of
building
Can be vertical, horizontal, or
diagonal
13.15

Walls
Really long, but slender, column
Two categories:
Load-bearing walls
Carries weight of beams, other walls,
floors, roofs, other structural elements
Also carries weight of the wall itself

Non-load-bearing walls
Need only support its own weight
Example: partition wall between two
stores in a strip mall
13.16

Connections
Weak link as it relates to structural
failure during fires
Often small, low-mass material that lacks
capacity to absorb heat

Three categories:
Pinned
Rigid
Gravity

13.17

Fire Effects on Common

Building Construction Materials
Many factors determine which material
is used to form structural elements:

Cost
Application
Engineering capabilities
Adaptability

Each material reacts to fire in a

different way
13.18

Table 13-1 Performance of Common Building Materials under

Stress and Fire

13.19

Wood
Most common building material
Relatively inexpensive
Marginal resistance to forces compared
to weight
Native wood with more mass takes
longer to burn before strength is lost
Engineered wood
Plywood delaminates when exposed to fire
Some composites fail through exposure to
heat without burning
13.20

Steel
Mixture of carbon and iron ore
Excellent tensile, shear, and
compressive strength
Popular choice for:

Girders
Lintels
Cantilevered beams
Columns

Loses strength as temperatures

increase
13.21

Concrete
Mixture of portland cement, sand,
gravel, and water
Excellent compressive strength
All concrete contains some moisture
Under heat, moisture expands and
causes concrete to crack and spall
Concrete can stay hot long after the
fire is out
13.22

Masonry
Common term that refers to brick,
concrete block, and stone
Used to form load-bearing walls
Veneer wall supports its own weight
Mortar holds units together and
have little or no tensile or shear
strength
Excellent fire-resistive qualities
13.23

Composites
Combination of the four basic materials
Includes plastics, glues, and assembly
techniques
Example: wooden I beams composed of
wood chips and veneers pressed together
in I-shape
Structurally stronger but fail quickly when heated
No fire contact required

Steel expands faster than wood, causing

stress at intersection between the two
materials
13.24

Figure 13-11 A composite truss. Rapid heating will cause the

stamped-steel to separate from the wood chords.

13.25

Types of Building
Construction
Five broad categories of building
construction have been developed
Give firefighters basic understanding
of:
Arrangement of structural elements
Materials used to construct building

Broad classifications are dangerously

incomplete for firefighters
Buildings are built to meet certain
codes
13.26

Type I: Fire Resistive

Elements are of an approved
non-combustible or limited combustible
material
Typical of Type I:
Monolithic-poured cement
Steel with spray-on fire protection coatings

Typically large multi-storied structures with

multiple exit points
Examples: arenas, high-rises, World Trade
Center
13.27

Figure 13-15 A typical Type I building, with

structural members designed to resist the effects
of fire for three to four hours. This building is of
reinforced concrete construction.

13.28

Type II: Non-combustible

Not qualified for Type I construction
Are of an approved non-combustible
or limited combustible material
Type II buildings are steel
Warehouses
Small arenas
Newer churches

Steel not required to have fireresistant coating

Susceptible to deformation
13.29

Figure 13-16 Buildings of Type II construction will have structural

elements with little or no protection from the effects of fire.
Remember, in the event of a fire, these unprotected steel
structural members may fail and collapse quickly.

13.30

Type III: Ordinary

Buildings where load-bearing walls
are non-combustible
Roof and floor assemblies are wood
Prevalent in most older town main
street areas
Many void spaces where fire can
spread undetected
Common hallways, utilities, attics

Masonry walls hold heat inside,

floors and roof beams gravity fit
13.31

Figure 13-17 Buildings of Type III, ordinary construction, are

common throughout North America. These typical Downtown
USA buildings provide many challenges to firefighters, such
as void spaces and common walls allowing rapid fire
extension and little structural protection.

13.32

Type IV: Heavy Timber

Block or brick exterior load-bearing walls
and interior structural members, roofs,
floors, and arches of solid or laminated
wood without concealed spaces
Buildings are quite stout
Used for warehouses, manufacturing buildings,
older churches

New Type IV buildings hard to find

Cost of large-dimension lumber and laminated
wood beams makes this building type rare

13.33

Figure 13-19 Type IV buildings, heavy timber construction,

have large wood structural elements with great mass. The
mass of these structural members requires a long burn time
for failure. The connections, usually steel, are the weak points
in this type of construction.

13.34

Figure 13-20 Wood and heavy timber beams were often

fire-cut so that a fire-damaged, sagging floor would simply
slide out of the wall pocket in order to preserve the wall.

13.35

Type V: Wood Frame

Most common construction type
Homes
Newer small businesses
Chain hotels

Balloon frame versus platform framing

Platform framing creates fire stopping
Gypsum board protects wood frame members
Fires that penetrate wall, floor, attic spaces
become significant collapse threat
13.36

Figure 13-21 The wood frame structure, Type V

construction, is the most common type of construction in
North America.

13.37

Other Construction
Types (Hybrids)
Methods that do not fit into one of
the five types
Combination of more than one type
Other types:
Lightweight steel frame
Insulated concrete formed (ICF)
Structural insulated panel (SIP) wall
13.38

Figure 13-24 This lightweight steel home is built similar

to a Type V. OSB sheeting gives the steel rigidity to
torsional loads such as wind.

13.39

Relationship of Construction
Type to Occupancy Use
Many officials and builders first
look at anticipated use of building
Occupancy classifications:

Basic arenas
Residential
Commercial
Business
Industrial
Education

13.40

Collapse Hazards at
Structure Fires
Firefighters must understand
buildings in their jurisdiction
Reading buildings is essential to
anticipate collapse

13.41

Trusses
Truss roof collapses have killed
many firefighters
Come in many styles and shapes
Wood trusses commonly used for
roof assemblies and floor assemblies
Steel trusses no less susceptible to
collapse than wood trusses

13.42

Figure 13-26 Wood trusses provide a large surface-to-mass

ratio, fuel load, and void spacesthree of the worst
structural collapse contributors a firefighter will encounter
during structural firefighting operations.

13.43

Void Spaces
Trusses create large void areas
Fires are able to spread horizontally
Fires can start in void spaces because
of electrical and utility problems
In Type III ordinary construction, voids
are numerous

13.44

Roof Structures
Flat, pitched, or inverted
Many factors determine construction
Roof style may allow a large volume
of fire to develop
Some dormers are actually aesthetic
and fool ventilation crews

13.45

Figure 13-30 Some common roof framing styles used in

wood frame or ordinary construction.

13.46

Stairs
Believing stairways are durable is
a dangerous assumption
Stairs are built offsite and hung in
place with metal strapping
Stairs are made with lightweight
engineered wood products
Fail quickly when heated

13.47

Parapet Walls
Extension of a wall past top of roof
Used to help hide unsightly roof
equipment
Free standing with little stability
Typically collapse when roof starts to
sag
Historically, dozens of firefighters
have been killed by collapsing
parapets
13.48

Figure 13-34 This electrical service entrance and

attached sign may be the eccentric load causing an early
failure of this parapet wall.

13.49

Collapse Warning Signs

Factors anticipating collapse:

Deterioration of mortar joints and masonry

Overall age and condition of building
Cracks
Signs of building repair
Large open spans
Bulges and bowing of walls
Sagging floors
Large volume of fire
Long firefighting operations
13.50

Buildings under Construction

Especially unsafe during
construction, remodeling, and
restoration
Building only meet fire codes when
completed
Stacked construction materials may
overload other structural
components
13.51

Time
No time limits for firefighting operations
Truisms have emerged:
The lighter the structural element, the faster it
comes down
The heavier the imposed load, the faster it comes
down
Wet (cooled) steel buys time
Gravity and time are constant
There is no window of time
Brown or dark smoke from lightweight structures
means time is up
13.52

Preparing for Collapse

Incident commander needs to predict
collapse PROACTIVELY
Communicated information between
teams help with predicting collapse
Once occupants have been found,
fire control should be reduced
Firefighters must not wander into
collapse zone
13.53

Figure 13-35 A minimum collapse zone should be 1

times the height of the building.

13.54

Lessons Learned
Many firefighters have been killed as a
result of building collapse
Firefighters must understand the buildings
in which they fight fires
Knowledge of building construction starts
with understanding of loads, forces, and
materials
Five class types are being challenged by
new construction methods
No rule for how long a building will last on
fire
13.55