GFD 2007

Boundary Layers

Theideaoftheboundarylayerdatesbackatleasttothetimeof
Prandtl(1904,seethearticle:LudwigPrandtlsboundarylayer,
PhysicsToday,2005,58,no.12,4248).

 Contemporaneously, Ekman

V.W.Ekman Young Ekman

Considered the effects of rotation although he did

not really think of his solutions in terms of what we
would call boundary layer theory.
Theprincipalconceptoftheboundaryoriginallyspringsfromthe
particularformofthefluidcontinuumequationsinwhichthe
dissipationtermsinvolvehigherorderderivativesthanthe
inertial,advectiveterms,e.g.fortheNavierStokesequationsfor
anonrotatingfluid:
ui ui p 2 ui
u j Fi
t x j xi x j x j

Forfluidslikeairorwaterthecoefficientof
viscosityisoftensufficientlysmall,inanon
dimensionalsensetobeclarifiedmoreformally
below,suchthatthephysicaleffectsoffriction
wouldseemtobenegligibleallowingtheneglectof
thelasttermontherighthandsideoftheequation.
 This is a singular perturbation.

The order of the equations is reduced and we can no longer satisfy

all the boundary conditions if the viscous term is neglected.
Themathematicalissueishowtoretainthehigherorderderivatives
onlywheretheyareneededtohelpsatisfytheboundaryconditions
and
thephysicalissueistounderstandthroughtheapplicationsof
boundarylayertheoryhow(andwhether)theactionoffrictionin
verylocalizedregionsmayaffectthefluidflowinregionsoutside
thedomaindirectlyaffectedbyfriction.Theinterplaybetweenthe
outerregion,inwhichfrictionisnotdirectlyimportant,andthe
innerregioninwhichfrictiondirectlyactsisakeyfeatureof
boundarylayertheory(aformofsingularperturbationtheory).
 An Oceanic example
Wind-driven ocean circulation model

J( , 2 ) x r 2 4 T (x, y)

J(a,b) ax by aybx U / L2
AH r*
,r
L3 L
If r and v neglected and the no slip condition is dropped, there will still
be a singular perturbation to the equations if the term, i.e. the
nonlinear advection terms are ignored. This leads to an inertial
boundary layer.This equation in its entirety will be discussed more fully
later.
 An outline of where we will be going

1) Linear boundary layer theory

Ekman layers, Boundary layers in density stratified fluids,
control of interior, experimental applications.
2) Coastal bottom boundary layer.
Boundary layer on shelf for upwelling and downwelling.
Observations (Lentz)
3) Boundary layers in the General Oceanic Circulation.
Sverdrup theory, Stommel, Munk, inertial boundary layers,
inertial runaway,thermocline and its boundary layer
structure.
 Equations of motion

1
uux vuy wuz 2v px u xx u yy uzz Incompressible fluid in a

1 rotating system.
uvx vvy wvz 2u py vxx vyy vzz

1
uwx vwy wwz pz g wxx wyy wzz If the density is not

constant must add an
ernery equation
u x v y wz 0

We are interested in cases where is small. Must introduce

scales.
 The Ekman Layer

z
U

x
E
vu y wu z v u zz u yy
2 The pressure has been
vvy wvz u
p E
vzz vyy scaled with 2LU0
y 2
p E Lengths with L and
vwy wwz wzz wyy
z 2
velocity with U0
v y wz 0
Uo
,theRossbynumber
2L

Far from the boundary the velocity is U(y).

E , theEkmannumber<<1
L2
Motion is independent of x (for simplicity)
 The solution far from the boundary

u I U(y),
This is an exact solution of
y the equations of motion but
pI U(y ')dy ', does not satisfy the no slip
condition on z =0.
vI 0,

wI 0.
We introduce the stretched, Corresponding to using
boundary layer variable. as a vertical scale,
zE 1/2
e

1/ 2

,

 In the new variable

1/ 2 2 1
2
E , 2 E w E 1/2W (y, )
z z 2
1
vu y Wu v
u E u yy
2
p 1
vvy Wv u v E vyy
y 2
p E
E vWy WW W E Wyy
2

vy W 0

Initially consider small

 Linear Ekman layer problem

1
v u
2
p 1 The pressure is uniform
u v
y 2 in the boundary layer
0
p and so is equal to its
freestream value p pI (y),

vy W 0
p pI
U(y)
y y
thus 1
v u
2
1
u U v
2

vy W 0
 The solution (1)

let

2
(u U) iv 2
2i

u U e A cos Bsin
o exp( 1 i ) or v e Asin B cos

Theconditionsthat
A U(y), B 0
bothuandvvanishon
z==0,yields u U (y) 1 e cos
v U (y)e sin
 The solution (2)

Note the overshoot

cross isobar flow perpendicular to U(y) U

The Ekman spiral
 The cross isobar flow (in y direction) and Ekman pumping

e
0 vdz e 0 vd 2 U(y) U
Cross isobar flow
Pressure force

1 U
W 1 e cos sin
2 y
and

wI (y,0) E1/2W (y, ) E1/2U y / 2

 Spin Down (1)

thisverticalvelocityissmallbutitcanhaveasubstantialeffectontheinterior
flowandis,inmanycasestheprimarymechanismforthedestructionofotherwise
inviscidmotionintheinterior.Forexample,apositiverelativevorticitywillgive
risetoapositiveverticalvelocityoutoftheboundarylayer.Iftheinterioris
boundedfromabovethiswillusuallyimplythatacolumnoffluidintheinterioris
squashedandtheresultwillbetodecreasetherelativevorticitybytheinertial
effectsofvortexsquashing.TheratewilldependontheEkmannumberbutthe
1 E 1/ 2
resultingspindowntimewillbeoftheorderofandsowillbelong

comparedwitharotationperiodofthesystembutshortcomparedtoa
1
characteristicdiffusiontime. E 1
 Spin down (2)

For small
d z w

dt z

d z 1/2 z
Ev w(z 0) Ev (U y / 2) Ev
1/2 1/2

dt 2
2 Non dimensional decay time
Ts 1/ 2
E
L Uo L L In dimensional (non
T*s
U o L / 1/2 1/ 2 dimensionless) units
 Nonlinear modifications of the Ekman Layer

Wecanexpectthatnonlinearitywillforceadditionaltermsinthe
solutionbutitwillalsobethecasethatitwillchangethestructureof
theO(1)solution.Sincetheboundarylayer,inlineartheorydepends
ontheratiooftheviscositytotherotation,itisoftenassumed,
heuristically,thatthefirsteffectofnonlinearityistochangethe
thicknesstosomethinglike,
1/2
2 / ( f z )
wheref=2(theCoriolisparameterandtheplanetaryvorticityand
whereistherelativevorticity.

z vx u y

Hence,theexpectationisthatpositiverelativevorticityinthe
interiorflowwillmaketheboundarylayerthinner.However,
positivevorticityproducesaverticalvelocitythatwilltendto
thickenthelayer
 A new stretched variable

And consider all variables to be

Z z
E 1/ 2 functions of both and Z

E 1/2 E 1/2
z Z

To order
1
vu y Wu v u 2 u Z E u yy
2
p 1
vvy Wv u v 2 v Z E vyy
y 2
p E
E vWy WW W 2W Z E Wyy
2

vy W WZ 0
 The expansion

u uo u1 ...

uo U A(y, Z)e cos B(y, Z )e sin ,

vo A(y, Z)e sin B(y, Z)e cos

A(0) U,B(0) 0
1 A B 1 U
Wo C(Z) e sin cos e cos sin C(0)
2 y y 2 y
 The solution for W0

theverticalvelocitymustbeindependentofzatleasttoorderandE.This
impliesthatCisindependentofZ

1 U 1 A B
Wo e sin cos e cos sin
2 y 2 y y
 The next order problem

1 2i1 Ru iRv, EvaluatingthetermsinRuandRv

revealsthatacombinationof
1 u1 iv1 , someofthetermswillhavethe
formofthehomogeneous
operatoronthelefthandsideof
Ru 2 vouoy Wouo 2uo Z ,
theeqn.Ifleftunalteredthose
termswouldintroducespatial
Rv 2 vo voy Wo vo 2vo Z secularterms,i.e.solutionsofthe
form e(1i)
andwouldrenderourexpansion
invalidfor=Z=O(1).To
preventthat,thetermsinRuand
Rvinvolvingthederivativesofthe
coefficientswithZareusedto
eliminateallsecularterms.
 Removing secular terms

(1 i )
Eliminating terms of the form e
leaves us with a differential eqn. in Z for A and B

64 7 48
vorticity term

U Iy
A iB A iB C
{ 0
Z w term 2i(1 i)

C U Iy
U Iy Z /4 iU Iy Z /4
and so A iB U I e e
UI e
U Iy Z /4
cos(U Z / 4) isin(U Z / 4)
Iy Iy
 The weakly nonlinear solution

U y Z / 4
A(Z ) Ue cosU y Z / 4,
or
U y Z / 4
B(Z ) Ue sinU y Z / 4

1 U y / 4
vo Ue sin( 1 U y / 4 )

uo U 1 e

1 U y / 4

cos 1 U y / 4

The exponential decay decreases when the relative vorticity is

positive, i.e. when Uy < 0. The effect of the vertical velocity in
thickening the boundary layer dominates the vorticity effect in
determining the boundary layer thickness.
 The vertical velocity

At lowest order

1
Wo U y 1 e y sin( U y Z / 4) cos( U y Z / 4)
( U Z /4)

2
To complete the solution we need to find the next
order corrections to u and v, i.e. to solve

1 2i1 Ru iRv, after the secular terms have

been removed.
1 u1 iv1 ,

Ru 2 vouoy Wouo 2uo Z ,

Rv 2 vo voy Wo vo 2vo Z
 The non secular problem
(no particular religious meaning implied)

Runon sec e2 AAy BBy ABy BAy iU y e (1i) (A iB),

Rvnon sec e2 AAy BBy ABy BAy

let
1 u1 iv1

1 2i1 e2( Z ) (1 i)UU y iUU y e (1i)e Z(1i) Uy / 4

(1 3i) 2( Z ) (1i)
1 UU y
10
e e
1 / 4 e (1i) Z (1i) e (1i)
 The cross isobar flux to order

1 7
E (vo v1 )d E U UU y
1/2 1/2

0
2 20

linear nonlinear

The divergence of this flow yields the vertical

velocity at the edge of the boundary layer

7


wI (y,0) E1/2 U y U y 2 UU yy
40


 The form of the cross isobar flow to order to order

Thepanelontheleftshowsthecrossisobar(v)flowforthelinearsolution(R 0=0,solidline)andthe
solutioncorrectedfornonlineareffects(R0=0.5,dashedlineandclearlypushingthevalidityofthe
expansion).Thepanelontheleftisfornegative,uniformshear(positiverelativevorticity)andthe
panelontherightisforpositiveshear(negativevorticity).
 references

BentonG.S.,F.B.LippsandS.Y.Tuann.1964.The
structureoftheEkmanlayerforgeostrophicflowswith
lateralshear.Tellus16,186199
Hart,J.E.2000Anoteonthenonlinearcorrectionto
theEkmanlayerpumpingvelocity.Phys.ofFluids.12,
131135
Brink,K.H.1997Timedependentmotionsandthe
nonlinearbottomEkmanlayer,J.MarineRes.55,613
631
 Nansens problem

f/2 wind stress

sea surface z=0

Scale for velocity ocean z0

2 o
Uo , f 2
f e

(non dimensional)
u ,v 0
2v u
linear problem
2u v
vy W 0
 Ekmans solution

u e cos( / 4)
2
u / 2,v / 2

v e sin( / 4) as goes to zero
2

stress

Surface velocity
 The profiles of velocity and the Ekman flux

Ue ud
0
0,

Ve vd
0
/ 2

total flux is to the

right of the stress. In
dimensional units:
TheEkmanvelocitiesu(solid)andv(dashed)
forastressinthexdirection . 2 o *
Ve U o e gVe
*
e
r f e 2 f
r k *
In general: U*e
f
The Ekman hodograph spiral
 The vertical velocity

1
W 1 e cos
2 y For a wind stress of one
dyne/cm2 the vertical velocity is
1 order of 10-4 cm/sec ~ 10
W ()
2 y cm/day and is responsible for
driving the major part of the
withdimensionsrestoredandin ocean circulation.
vectorform,

U e (r / f )
we W kg *
L
Nonlinear similar to previous example. However one simple
result follows almost immediately.
 Role of nonlinearity on Ekman transport (and pumping)

Consider stress in x direction but now include a very strong

geostrophic current in the x direction whose scale is much greater
than the Ekman depth. Again, with solutions independent of x

1
vu y Wu v u E u yy
2
p 1
vvy Wv u v E vyy
y 2
p E
E vWy WW W EWyy
2

vy W Z 0
 The linearized equations

p
u g (y) ue f
y e

1
vu gy v u
2 Vertically integrating and using
1
u u g v
2 u ,v 0

Ve ,
2 1 u gy

Ue 0
 Ekman transport (dimensional)

r r
k /
U*e
f g This holds only when the
stress and geostrophic
Relative vorticity
current are collinear

Refs.
M.E.Stern1965Interactionofauniformwindstresswitha
geostrophicvortex.DeepSeaRes.12,355367
P.P.Niiler1969OntheEkmandivergenceinanoceanicjet.J.
Geophys.Res.74,70487052
 General nonlinear formulation

Again, expand in a series in and introduce the slow variable

Z =
0 A(Z )e (1i ) , 0 uo ivo

uo ug (y) e Ar cos Ai sin ,

Ar (0) 2 Ai (0) 2
vo e Ai sin Ar cos

y e
W0 Ai Ar cos Ai Ar sin
2 2 y
 Order problem

1
1 i e (1i) (Ar Ai ) i(Ar Ai ) Possible resonant
2 Z terms

y ugy
e (1i)
(A
2 r i A ) i(Ar Ai ) Ar iA
i
2i
ugy (1 i)
e (1i)
2i
A iA e
r i
2

2
Ai (Ary Aiy ) Ar (Ary Aiy )

Removing the secular terms leads to

Z y /2 ugy / 4
Ar e cos(Zu gy / 4 / 4)
21/2

Z y /2 ugy / 4
Ai e sin(Zugy / 4 / 4)
21/2
 The structure of the O(1) solution

y ugy
1
uo ug
21/2
e 2 4

cos (1 ugy / 4) / 4 ,
y ugy
1
vo
21/2
e 2 4

sin (1 ugy / 4) / 4

Boundary layer thickness
1
1/2
y ugy / 2 1/ 2

same result if we linearize 2 dimensional
*
in transition region around f 2 *y*
u*gy*

f 2
ug(y) and W= -y/2
 Boundary layer flux to O(

Solution for non secular forcing yields

0 3 And using the O(1) solutions

v1d ugy dependence on
8

0 y ugy Thomas,L.N.andP.B.Rhines,2002.Nonlinear
(vo v1 )d stratifiedspinup.J.FluidMech.,473,211244
2 8 2
1
0 W ()

W () vo v1 d
2 y 1 ugy y / 4
y