History of

Ethical Studies
&
Human Actions
Definition
The term Ethics, derived from:
The Greek word Ethikos from the
word Ethos which means moral
principals, character or custom.

The Latin word Ethicus , which

means spiritual characteristics of
community, people or system. 2
 Technical meaning: refers
to:
The philosophical science
that deals with the rightness
and wrongness of human
actions.

It is a moral principal or set

of moral values hold by an 3
individual or group.
 Terms related to Ethics
Virtues:
- The quality/practice of moral excellence or
righteousness.
- Doing something right because it is the good thing to
do.

Values:
- Are matters/convictions that are worth striving for in
general, such as: happiness, justice, charity.
- Core beliefs that guide and motivate attitudes and
actions

- Norms:
- Are rules that prescribe what actions are required, 4
permitted or forbidden.
 Classifications of Ethics

Normative Meta-ethics Applied

1. Normative ethics:
Seeks to set norms and standards for conduct or General
theories about what one ought to do.

2. Meta-ethics:
Systematically studies and investigates the meanings and
sources of ethical principles (terms, arguments and
judgments).

3. Applied ethics:
Application of normative theories to practical moral 5
issues/ problems.
Ethics, Law and
Religion

Western Perspective

Islamic Perspective
 Definition of ethics in Islam

- Ethics in Arabic is ilm al-

akhlq (science of morality), is
the branch of knowledge that
studies akhlq (morals).

- Al-Akhlq (the plural of khuluq/

)(refers to morality, which
means a nature, or an innate
disposition or temperament. 7
What is Engineering Ethics?: A Western
Perspective
An area of inquiry that studies
behavioral practices in
engineering, what they have
been in the past, what they are
now, and what they should be

Source: Ronald R. Kline, Using history & sociology to teach

engineering ethics, IEEE Technology and Society
Magazine, Winter 2002/2002, p. 12.
 What is Engineering Ethics?: An Islamic
Perspective
- An area of inquiry that studies the engineering
practices in its holistic context which includes: intentions,
thinking, behaviour, usage, and the consequences of all
of them.

- Engineering is seen as an Istikhlaf means, thus

its should be bound by all the rules of acts of worship in
Islam especially that pertaining to Maslaha (benefit) and
Mafsadah (harm).

- Studying ethics in this context, implies usage of

an integrated methodology based on imperative
consideration of Revelation as ultimate source of the
discipline.
 Cont.
EE is not different from the content of
general ethics in Islam, all what is
considered in the second it is applicable in
the former. However, when the engineering
is added to ethics a certain specification
helping engineers to understand many details
of their professional environment are
emphasized especially for that types of cases
which need a specialized knowledge,
typical awareness, possession of
relevant skills, carrying specific
responsibility.
 Islamic Resources on Professional ethics

- 1- Politics:
A- Adab Al-Moulouk (King's etiquette), Abu Mansur Al-
taalibi.
B- Siraj Al-Moulouk (Kings Lamp), Abu Bakr Al-
tartouchi.

- 2- Education:
A- Ethics of Scholars, by Abu Bakr Al-Ajjurri.
B- The etiquettes of the knowledge Seekers, by Al-
Khatib al-Baghdadi.

3- Medicine:
A- Ethics of medical Practitioner, By Mohammad bin
Zakariya Al-Razi.
B- The etiquettes of Medical practices, by Ishaq Al-
 Revelation: Ultimate Source

Ethics in Islam comes from one single

source, that is: al-Wahy or Revelation. The
prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him)
has stated that he has only been sent to
support and elaborate on the ethical
virtues (reported by al-Bukhari). Other
sources source like customs, social
relationships, public, welfare are
considered only when they are compatible
with the Revelation.
Revelational ethics are:
1. comprehensive.
2. Deeply grounded in the self.
3. individual & collective level.
4. Consistence & Coherence.
5. Simple & achievable. No one should be
charged beyond his capacity.
Source of Islamic Engineering Ethics

Quran & Sunnah

Fiqh al-muamalat (ahkam aal-sanaI)
(Maslah & Mafsadah).
Shari ah Objective
History of Engineering Practices.
Source of Western Engineering Ethics

Moral Philosophy
History of Science
Sociology
Science Technology Studies (STS)
The Khalifah Precept

.[30] :

And when thy Lord said unto the angels: Lo! I am about
to place a viceroy in the earth, they said: wilt Thou
place therein one who will do harm therein and will
shed blood, while we, we hymn Thy praise and
sanctify Thee? He said: Surely I know that which ye
know not.
Tasks of Istikhlaf
Scope of Ethics
Scope of Istikhlaf Engineering Ethics
Major Issues in Engineering Ethics

1. Public Safety & Welfare.

2. Risk and the Principle of Informed Consent.
3. Conflict of Interest.
4. Whistleblowing.
5. Trade Secrets.
6. Accepting Gifts.
Source: Ronald R. Kline, Using history & sociology to teach engineering ethics, IEEE
Technology and Society Magazine, Winter 2002/2002, p. 16.
Ethical Theories:
An
overview
Definition
Moral Theories refer to the
compound and diverse techniques
that are developed by the ethicists
to govern ethical decision making.

They represent the diverse

approaches to ethical issues
through the assessment of moral
problems.
 Action Evaluation:
Major Ethical Theories

Action

Kohlbergs Theory: Moral Development

 Major Ethical Theories
Virtue Ethics: Aristotle (384-322
BC)

The virtue or value of the actions is not in

the act but it is in the heart of the actor.

It seeks to have people act out of

spontaneous goodness, to produce
excellent people who inspire others.

Everything in the universe has a purpose

and it is built in to their nature. Human are
not different and have their own purposes
which must be achieving the Good

Virtues enable human beings to act in

accordance with our essence or human
nature. The thing that distinguishes
humans from all other creatures is our
ability to reason.
 Cont..
Asks what kind of character must a
person have to be a moral human being.

A lifetime of virtuous living and

avoidance of vice forms a morally
virtuous character.

Virtues exist between a mean that has

excess and deficiency at either end.

A good character is an achievement, not 23

a natural endowment.
 Problems with virtue
ethics
1- It doesn't give clear guidance on how to act in specific
circumstances. It cannot tell us what the law should be about
abortion, euthanasia, pre-implantation genetic diagnosis etc.

2- It gives no clear answer to questions such as 'Is the environment

intrinsically valuable?'.

3- There is also uncertainty about how you decide on what the virtues
are.

4- Is cultivating the virtues really the best way for an individual to

maximize his human potential?

5- People can do the wrong thing for the right reasons (e.g. ignorantly
kind).
 Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

Utilitarianism: The Greatest

Good

Principle of social utility

measured by the resulting
amount of pleasure and
happiness. Greatest
happiness (pleasure) for the
greatest number .

It holds that happiness/utility

is good in itself and worth
pursuing and increasing for
its own sake.

It Argues that the

consequences of an action
make that action either moral
or immoral. An action that
leads to beneficial
consequences is right or
moral; one that leads to
harmful consequences is John Stewart Mill
 Varieties of Utilitarianism

Act utilitarianism VS Rule utilitarianism

1. Act utilitarianism: is the belief that it is the right action that brings the
greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. It is a concept that
believes that the morality of an action is determined by its usefulness to
most of the people, that this act is in accordance with the moral rules since
it brings greater good or happiness.

2. Rule utilitarianism: is the belief that an action can be morally right if it

conforms to the rules that will lead to the greatest good or happiness. It
adheres to the belief that the correctness of an action is determined by the
correctness of its rules and that if the correct rule is followed, the greatest
good or happiness is achieved.

3. In Act utilitarianism it is alright to break a rule as long as it brings a

greater good, while in Rule utilitarianism even if a rule cannot bring a
greater good, breaking it will not either.
 Problems with Utilitarianism
1- Seemingly immoral acts can be judged moral,
e.g. killing an innocent person.
2- Consequences are often difficult or impossible to
predict.
3- Limits Emotions.
4- Can justify anything.
5- The morality of an act may depend on chance
(how the consequences happen to play out).
6- What happens to minority?

7- Subject to rationalization.
Kantian Ethics (Deontological
Ethics)
Argues that the consequences of an
action are irrelevant to a moral
evaluation of that action.

He concentrates on the nature of the

action itself as well as its motive in
order to determine whether it is right or
wrong. Actions that are moral are those
that are undertaken out of a sense of
duty (Deon the Greek word for duty).

One does it because it is the right thing

to do. Categorical Imperative (an
unconditional moral law that applies to
all rational beings and is independent of
any personal motive or desire). Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

Cont
The categorical imperative distinguishes between the
right and wrong actions by generalizing the actions
maxim and seeing if this can be done consistently.
(Maxims are the everyday reasons or principles that lie
behind our actions and motivate them, e.g: when in
danger, run).

It Does for that same what utility does for the

Utilitarians by looking at the rationality and
consistency of an action not its consequences. (e.g: 30
borrowing money with a false promise to pay it back).
 Problems with deontological
ethics

1- Problem of justification for Categorical Imperative

where does it come from?
Not all good actions can be universalized

2- Not all people follow reason

3- Reason is fallible.

4- Rigid
- E.g. if we have a categorical imperative not to lie, it is wrong to lie
even if by lying to a mad gunman, we can save an innocent persons
life.
 Egoism

Right and wrong are

determined by the
course of action
that will bring the
most personal
pleasure and avoid
the most pain.

Ethical norms are

totally subjective. Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900)
 Problems with Egoism

We all have incompatible

interests: how do you decide
which interest to satisfy?

Since each individual is out for

her or his own self, there is no
consensus.
Comparison of Ethical
Theories
Consequentialism Deontology Virtue Theory

Aristotle's moral
example Mill's utilitarianism Kantian ethics
theory

An action is right if it An action is right if it

An action is right if it
abstract is in accordance is what a virtuous
promotes the best
description with a moral rule or agent would do in
consequences.
principle. the circumstances.

A virtuous agent is
one who acts
virtuously, that is,
The best
one who has and
consequences are A moral rule is one
more concrete exercises the
those in which that is required by
specification virtues. A virtue is a
happiness is rationality.
character trait a
maximized.
human being needs
to flourish or live
well.
 Kohlbergs Theory

Moral Development

He explained the
development of moral
reasoning. His theory is
a stage theory. In other
words, everyone goes
through the stages
Lawrence
sequentially without Kohlberg (1927
skipping any stage. 1987)
Cont
Lawrence Kohlberg's ideas of moral
development are based on the premise that
at birth, all humans are void of morals,
ethics, and honesty.
He identified the family as the first source
of values and moral development for an
individual.
He believed that as one's intelligence and
ability to interact with others matures, so
does one's patterns of moral behavior.
He described three main levels of moral
development with two stages in each level.
Example of a Moral
Dilemma
In Europe a woman was near death from a special kind of
cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought
might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggest in
the same town had recently discovered. The drug was
expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten
times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for
the radium and charged $2000 for a small dose of the
drug. The sick womans husband, Heinz, went to
everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only
get together $1000 which is half of what it cost. He told
the druggest that his wife was dying and asked him to sell
it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, No,
I discovered the drug, and am going to make money from
it. So Heinz got desperate and broke into the mans store
to seal the drug for his wife.

Participants would then be asked, should Heinz

have stolen the drug? Was stealing right or
wrong? Why?
Kohlbergs Theory
KOHLBERG'S MORAL STAGES

Kolberg's theory specifies six stages of moral development,

arranged in three levels.

Level I: Preconventional/Premoral
The child is responsive to rules and evaluative labels, but views
them in terms of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of
actions, or in terms of the physical power of those who impose
the rules.
Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation
Egocentric deference to superior power or prestige, or a
trouble-avoiding set.
Key concepts: authority,obedience, punishment
Those at this stage:small children
Heinz was wrong: he will wind up in prison! Punishment is
proof that it is wrong.
 Stage 2: Naively egoistic orientation
Right action is that which is instrumental in satisfying the
self's needs and occasionally others'.
Naive egalitarianism, orientation to exchange and
reciprocity.
key concepts: fair deal, favors, Whats in it for
me?
Those at this stage:schoolchildren
Heinz was right: he wanted to save his wife. After
all, she takes care of his children and maybe
some day she will return the favor. Or: Maybe
after a while he will see that going to prison to
save his wife was a raw deal.
 Level II: Conventional/Role Conformity

Moral values reside in performing the right role, in maintaining

the conventional order and expectancies of others as a value in
its own right.
Stage 3: Good-boy/good-girl orientation
Orientation to approval, to pleasing and helping others.
Conformity to stereotypical images of majority or natural role
behavior.
Action is evaluated in terms of intentions.
Key concepts:motive, character,doingwhat society expects
Those at this stage:anyone who lives only in a face-to-face
world:early teens, people who live in small towns or tribes cut
off from the rest of the world
Heinz was right: it is what any good husband would do! No
judge with his head screwed on right would put him in prison. If
anyone should go to prison it is that druggist!
Cont
Stage 4: Authority and social-order-maintaining
orientation

Orientation to "doing duty" and to showing respect for

authority and maintaining the given social order or its own
sake.
Differentiates actions out of a sense of obligation to rules
from actions for generally "nice" or natural motives.
Key concepts:law and order, duty to society
Those at this stage:late teens, most people in
large, faceless societies
Heinz was wrong: without respect for the law,
society would fall apart!
 Level III: Post-conventional/Self-Accepted Moral Principles

Morality is defined in terms of conformity to shared standards, rights, or

duties apart from supporting authority. The standards conformed to are
internal, and action-decisions are based on an inner process of thought and
judgment concerning right and wrong.

Stage 5: Contractual/legalistic orientation, tendency

Norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized
rules which seem to have a rational basis.
When conflict arises between individual needs and law , the individual
believes the latter must prevail because of its greater functional rationality
for society, the majority will and welfare.
Key concepts:rights, democracy, changing unjust laws, revolution
Those at this stage: some in their middle twenties or later
Heinz was wrong but the judge should go easy on him. The druggist has a
right to profit from his discovery, but the wife has a right to life.
Cont
Stage 6: The morality of
individual principles of conscience
Orientation not only toward existing social rules, but
also toward the conscience as a directing agent,
mutual trust and respect, and principles of moral
choice involving logical universalities and consistency.
Action is controlled by internalized ideals that exert a
pressure to act accordingly regardless of the reactions
of others in the immediate environment.
If one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt
result.
Key concepts:duty to justice, civil disobedience
Those at this stage:Gandhi, Martin Luther King.No
one Kohlberg tested had clearly reached this stage!
Heinz was right. We have a duty to justice to break
unjust laws.
 Kohlberg Theory:
 Criticism of Kohlbergs
Theory
Critique 1: One criticism of Kohlberg's theory is that it emphasizes
justice to the exclusion of other values, and so may not adequately address
the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions.

Critique 2: Carol Gilligan has argued that Kohlberg's theory is overly

androcentric ( placing male human beings or the masculine point of view at the
center of one's view of the world and its culture and history ). Kohlberg's theory
was initially developed based on empirical research using only male
participants; Gilligan argued that it did not adequately describe the
concerns of women. Although research has generally found no significant
pattern of differences in moral development between sexes.

Critique 3: His theory is culturally biased/not universal.

 Action Evaluation: An Islamic
Perspective

Source: Revelation (indisputable and Practical Ethics)

1- The decision is for Allah only. He telleth the truth and He is
the Best of Deciders.(Anaam: 57)
2- The decision rests with Allah only, Who hath commanded you
that ye worship none save Him. (Yusuf: 40)
3- The decision rests with Allah only. In Him do I put my trust,
and in Him let all the trusting put their trust. (Yusuf: 67)
2- But nay, by thy lord, they will not believe (in truth) until they
make thee judge of what is in dispute between them and find
within themselves no dislike of that which thou decidest, and
submit with full submission. (Al.Nisaa: 65)

The Quran uses a strict and authoritative way to

implement its rules and moral values . At the same time it
tries to remind us of the great rewards, benefits and
advantages behind good deeds. (Targhib & Tarhib = Invitation and
Intimidation).
 Different levels:
1. Tawhid: The core of
Islamic ethics. (to achieve
total freedom)
2. Love of Allah and his
religion: will ease our
submission to his rules and
the fulfillment of our
duties.
3. The legality of the
action.
4. The effect of
Intention (good and bad
deeds, The Permissible
(Mubah).
5. Tawakal (Trust In Allah):
To Do our best and leave
the consequences to
Allahs will.

48
 Characteristics of
Moral Duties:
1.
Comprehensiveness
and Inclusiveness: for
instance: justice as a
value must applicable
to all at all times.
2. Simple &
achievable: No one
should be charged
beyond his capacity.
3. Flexibility: Different
levels of morality
(Maximum and
minimum).
4. Moderation: Thus
We have appointed you
a middle nation Al- 49
Baqarah: 143).