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Analysis
Purpose of Data Analysis
Describe or summarize data
clearly
Inferential
Used to make inferences or
predictions about the similarity of a
sample to the population which from
which the sample is drawn.
Quantitative Levels of
Analysis
Univariate - simplest
form,describe a case in terms of
a single variable.
Bivariate - subgroup
comparisons, describe a case in
terms of two variables
simultaneously.
Multivariate - analysis of two or
more variables simultaneously.
Univariate Analysis
Describing a case in terms of the
distribution of attributes that comprise
it.
Example:
Gender - number of women, number of
men.
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Frequency Distribution
Graphs
In a frequency distribution graph,
the score categories (X values) are
listed on the X axis and the
frequencies are listed on the Y axis.
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Histograms
In a histogram, a bar is
centered above each score (or
class interval) so that the height
of the bar corresponds to the
frequency and the width extends
to the real limits, so that adjacent
bars touch.
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Cumulative frequency
Cumulative means adding up, so
a cumulative frequency diagram
requires a running total of the
frequency.
Marks Frequency Cumulativ
e
frequency
5 2 2
4 3 5
3 4 9
2 2 11
1 1 12
Central Tendency
Purpose to represent the typical
score attained by subjects
Three common measures
Mode
Median
Mean
Central Tendency
Mode
The most frequently occurring score
Appropriate for nominal data
Median
The score above and below which 50% of
all scores lie (i.e., the mid-point)
Characteristics
Appropriate for ordinal scales
Doesnt take into account the value of each and
every score in the data
Central Tendency
Mean
The arithmetic average of all scores
Characteristics
Advantageous statistical properties
Affected by outlying scores
Most frequently used measure of central
tendency
When to Use Mean
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Formulae SD
Mean
The mean is the arithmetic
average of the scores
The calculation of the mean
considers both the number of
scores and their value
The formula for the mean of the
variable X is:
X
M
n
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Median
The median is the middle point in an
ordered distribution at which an equal
number of scores lie on each side of it
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Median
The position of the median (Mdn) can
be calculated as follows:
n 1
Mdn
2
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Median
Step One:
Place the scores in order from lowest to highest.
71, 72, 73, 74, 75
Step Two:
Calculate the position of the median using the
following formula:
n 1
Mdn
2
5 1
Mdn 3rd score
2
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Median
Step Three:
Determine the value of the median by
counting from either the highest or the
lowest score until the desired score is
reached (in this case the 3rd score)
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Median for even amount of
number
In
that case we need to find themiddle
pairof numbers, and then find the value
that would be half way between them.
This
is easily done by adding them together
and dividing by two.
71, 72, 73, 74, 74, 75
Middle number : 73 and 74
73+74 = 147
147/2 = 73.5 (median)
Mode
The mode is the most frequently
occurring score
Which of the following scores is the
mode?
3, 7, 3, 9, 9, 3, 5, 1, 8, 5
Similarly, for another data set :
2, 4, 9, 6, 4, 6, 6, 2, 8, 2), there are two modes;
What are they?
What is the mode for :
7, 7, 6, 6, 5, 5, 4 and 4
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Range
The range is equal to the high
score minus the low score in a
distribution
It is considered an unstable
measure of variability, and can
change drastically if extreme
scores are introduced to the
distribution
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Range
As a result of gas analysis in a
respirometer, an investigator
obtains the following four
readings of oxygen percentages:
14.9, 10.8, 12.3, and 23.3
What is the range?
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Inferential Statistics
Types of Correlation
Positive Correlation
Negative Correlation
No Correlation