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Assessment
Specification
DETAIL
DESIGN Concept
Design
A vast subject. We will concentrate on:
Cost Breakdown
Manufacture
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Materials Selection with Shape
FUNCTION SHAPE
PROCESS
Common Modes of Loading
Moments of Sections: Elastic
Section A I K A = Cross-sectional area
Shape (m2) (m4) (m4)
4 (a 2 b 2 )
b3h b K = Resistance to twisting of section
bh 3
1 0.58
bh 3 h ( Polar moment J of a circular section)
12
3 2 a 4
(h b )
a 4
3
K
TL
G
J 2r dr
sec tion
3
a
4 32 3 80
where T is the torque
L is the length of the shaft
(ro2 ri 2 ) ( ro4 ri 4 ) ( ro4 ri 4 )
4 2 is the angle of twist
2rt r 3 t 2r 3t G is the shear modulus
Moments of Sections: Elastic
Section A I K
Shape (m2) (m4) (m4)
4
2 3 t
4bt bt b t 1
3
3 b
3b 4 (ab)5 / 2 t
(a b)t a 3t 1
4 a a2 b2
b 3
b( ho hi ) (ho hi3 )
12
2bt
btho2 / 2
1 3 3b 2tb 2h2 2 3 4h
2t (h b) h t 1 bt 1
6 h hb 3 b
t 3 t3 2 3 4b
2t (h b) (h 4bt 2 ) (8b h ) ht 1
6 3 3 h
2d 2 t d 2
t 1
2
4 8
Moments of Sections: Failure
Section Z Q
Shape (m3) (m3)
I
r3 r3 Z = Section modulus Z
4 2 ym
b3 where
0.21b3
6 ym is the normal distance from the neutral axis
a 2b to the outer surface of the beam carrying the
2
ab 2 highest stress
4
(a b )
b 2h 2
bh2 Q = Factor in twisting similar to Z
3 h 1 .8 b
6
(h b )
T
Q
a3 a3
32 20 where
(ro4 ri 4 ) (ro4 ri 4 ) is the maximum surface shear stress
4ro 2ro
r 2t 2r 2t
Moments of Sections: Failure
Section Z Q
Shape (m3) (m3)
2
4 2 t
bt 2b t 1
2
3 b
a 2t 3b 2t (a3b )1/ 2
1
4 a (b a)
b 3
6ho
ho hi3
btho
h 2t 3 b 2 2 4h
1 2tbh bt 1
3 h 3 b
t t2 2 2 4b
(h3 4bt 2 ) (8b h ) ht 1
3h 3 3 h
td
4
Shape Factors: Elastic
BENDING TORSION
C1EI KG
Bending stiffness of a beam SB Torsional stiffness of a beam ST
L3 L
where C1 is a constant depending on the where L is the length of the shaft, G is the
loading details, L is the length of the beam, shear Modulus of the material.
and E is the Youngs modulus of the material
Define structure factor as the ratio of the Define structure factor as the ratio of the
stiffness of the shaped beam to that of a torsional stiffness of the shaped shaft to that
solid circular section with the same cross- of a solid circular section with the same
sectional area thus: S I cross-sectional area thus:
Be ST K
B
Te
SBo Io STo K o
A2 4I A2 2K
Io r so, 2 Ko r Te
4 e 4
so,
4 2
B
4 A 2 A2
Shape Factors: Failure/Strength
BENDING TORSION
The highest stress, for a given bending moment M, The highest shear stress, for a given torque T,
experienced by a beam is at the surface a experienced by a shaft is given by:
distance ym furthest from the neutral axis: T
My m M
Q
I Z
The beam fails when the torque is large enough for
The beam fails when the bending moment is large to reach the failure shear stress of the material:
enough for to reach the failure stress of the
Tf Q f
material: M Z
f f
Define structure factor as the ratio of the failure Define structure factor as the ratio of the failure
moment of the shaped beam to that of a solid torque of the shaped shaft to that of a solid circular
circular section with the same cross-sectional area section with the same cross-sectional area thus:
thus: M Z Tf Q
B f f
Tf
Mfo Zo Tfo Qo
A3 / 2 4 Z A3 / 2 2 Q
Zo r 3
so,
f
Qo r 3
so, T
f
4 4 B
A3 / 2 2 2 A3 / 2
Shape Factors: Failure/Strength
Please Note:
The shape factors for failure/strength described in this lecture course are
those defined in the 2nd Edition of Materials Selection In Mechanical
Design by M.F. Ashby. These shape factors differ from those defined in
the 1st Edition of the book. The new failure/strength shape factor
definitions are the square root of the old ones.
The shape factors for the elastic case are not altered in the 2nd Edition.
Comparison of Size and Shape
Rectangular sections
I-sections
SIZE
Shape Factors
Section Stiffness Failure/Strength
Shape e
B e
T Bf Tf
1 1 1 1
2
1.05 0.88 1.18 0.74
3 3
a 2ab a a
(a b )
b a b2
2
b b
2b h 2 (b / h )1/ 2
h 2
1/ 2
1 0.58 h
3h b 3(1 0.6b / h )2
3b
(h b )
3 b
(h b )
2 2
1.21 0.73 0.77 0.62
3 3 5 3
1/ 2 1/ 2
r r 2r 2r
t t t t
Shape Factors contd
Section Stiffness Failure/Strength
Shape e
B
e
T f
B Tf
b b 2 b b
4 1/ 2 1/ 2 2
t t
1 1
6t 8t b 3 t 2 t b
a(1 3b / a) 8(ab)5 / 2 a
1/ 2
(1 3b / a) 4a1/ 2
t (1 b / a)2 t (a 2 b 2 )(a b )2 t (1 b / a)3 / 2 t 1/ 2 (1 a / b )3 / 2
h 2 2 h
2bt (bt )1/ 2
h(1 3b / h) b 2h 2 t (1 4h / b) 2 h
1/ 2
(1 3b / h ) 2 h 2
1/ 2
t (1 4h / b )
6t (1 b / h)2
t (h b ) 3
3b(1 h / b)2
3 t (1 b / h ) (bt ) (1 h / b)3 / 2
3/2 1/ 2 3 b (1 b / h )3 / 2
h(1 4bt 2 / h3 ) t (1 8b / h) t (1 4b / h) h
1/ 2
(1 4bt 2 / h3 ) t 1/ 2 (1 8b / h) 2 t
1/ 2
(1 4b / h )
3 h (1 b / h )3 / 2
6t (1 b / h )2 6h(1 b / h)2 3h(1 b / h)2 (1 b / h )3 / 2 18h (1 b / h)
3/2
2 t
d 2 d
2t (t )1/ 2
Efficiency of Standard Sections
ELASTIC BENDING
4I
Shape Factor: B
e
A2
BENDING STRENGTH
4 Z
Shape Factor: Bf
A3 / 2
2K Te 2 Q 3 Tf
2 ;
e
log K 2 log A log 3/2 ;
f
logQ log A log
2 2
T T
A A 2
C1EI KG
Bending stiffness of a beam: SB Torsional stiffness of a shaft: ST
L3 L
4I C1EBe A2
Shape factor: 2 so, SB
e
2K GTe A2
4L3
B
A Shape factor: so, ST
e
2L
T
A2
1/ 2 1/ 2
4SB 5/2
2
m L e 3/2
2
1/ 2
EB m 2ST L e
1/ 2
C1
GT
f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)
f1(F) f2(G) f3(M)
3
So, to minimize
(EBe )1/ 2 G E So, to minimize (ETe )1/ 2
mass m, maximise M1 8 mass m, maximise M2
Performance Indices with Shape
FAILURE IN BENDING FAILURE IN TORSION
4 Z f Bf A3 / 2 2 Q f Tf A3 / 2
Shape factor: so, Mf Shape factor: so, Tf
f f
4 4
B T
A3 / 2 A3 / 2
( f f 2)
2/3 2/3
3/2 3/2
m ( 4 Mf ) L
2/3
f
m 4 Tf 2/3
L
f
f B f T
can be written as =1
10
(E ) e 1/ 2 Woods
M1 B
e
B =10
1 Engineering
A material with Youngs modulus, Polymers
E and density, , with a particular
section acts as a material with an 0.1
effective Youngs modulus
Polymer
E E
e
B
Foams Elastomers
Density, (Mg/m3)
Shape in Materials Selection Maps
EXAMPLE 1, Failure in bending
10000
Performance index for failure in
Ceramics
bending including shape,
(Bf f )2 / 3 Composites
M3 1000
Search
Region
Strength, f (MPa)
can be written as Engineering
100
( f ( ) )f 2 2/3 Alloys
M3 B Woods
( ) B
f 2
=1
10 Engineering
Polymers
A material with strength, f and =10 Elastomers
density, , with a particular
section acts as a material with an 1
effective strength Polymer
f f (Bf )2 Foams
Density, (Mg/m3)
Micro-Shape Factors
Material Micro-Shape Micro-Shaped Material,
C1EoIo
Stiffness of the solid beam: SBo
L3
On expanding the beam, its density falls from o to ,
and its radius increases from ro to 1/ 2
Prismatic cells Fibres embedded
r o ro in a foam matrix
The second moment 2 2
4 o 4 o
of area increases to I r ro Io
4 4
If the cells, fibres or rings are Concentric cylindrical
parallel to the axis of the beam then E Eo shells with foam between
o
The stiffness of the
C EI C EI S o
expanded beam is thus SB 1 3 1 3 o o Shape Factor: B
e
L L So
Mats. Selection: Multiple Constraints
Function
Objective
Tie
Constraint
Minimum weight E 1/ 2
M1
Shaft
Strength
Maximum stored
energy
Column
Fatigue
Index
Minimum
environmental impact f2 / 3
Mechanical
Geometry M2
Thermal
Electrical..
Materials for Safe Pressure Vessels
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Function Pressure vessel =contain
pressure p
Objective Maximum safety
Constraints (a) Must yield before break
(b) Must leak before break
(c) Wall thickness small to
reduce mass and cost
K IC K IC2
M1 M2
f f M3 f
Material M1 M3 Comment
(m1/2) (MPa)
Tough steels >0.6 300 Standard.
Tough Cu alloys >0.6 120 OFHC Cu.
M1 = 0.6 m1/2 Tough Al alloys >0.6 80 1xxx & 3xxx
If the beam is to meet both constraints then, for a given material, its weight is
determined by the larger of m1 or m2
or more generally, for i constraints ~ max( m , m , m .....m )
m 1 2 3 i
log Index M2
The Coupling Line separates the domains and is
calculated by coupling the Objective Functions:
f (F )g (G )
M1 1 1 1 1 M2 Cc M2 B
f2 (F2 )g 2 (G2 )
where CC is the Coupling Constant.
M1 Limited M1 Limited
Search Search
Domain Domain
Area Area
A A
log Index M2
log Index M2
C C
B B
Coupling Line
M2 = CCM1
M2 Limited M2 Limited
Coupling Line Domain Domain
M2 = CCM1
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Function Magnet windings
Objective Maximize magnetic field
Constraints (a) No mechanical failure
N Turns L
Current i (b) Temperature rise <150C
(c) Radius r and length L of
coil specified
d 2r d
oNif
The field (weber/m2) is B f ( , )
L
where o = the permeability of air, N = number of turns, i = current, f = filling factor,
f(,) = geometric constant, = 1+(d/r), = L/2r
B2
Radial pressure created by the field p
2o f ( , )
pr B 2r
generates a stress in the coil
d 2o f ( , )d
Bfailure o y
r So, Bfailure is maximized
by maximizing
M1 y
Windings for High Field Magnets
CONSTRAINT 1: Overheating
The energy of the pulse is i Ret pulse (Re = average of the resistance over the
2
heating cycle, tpulse = length of the pulse) causes the temperature of the coil to rise by
B 2et pulse
T 2 2 where e = electrical resistivity of the coil material
o d Cp Cp = specific heat capacity of the coil material
y Cp e Bfailure Bheat ~
B
Material (MPa) (Mg/m3) (J/kgK) (10-8m) (wb/m2) (wb/m2) (wb/m2)
High conductivity Cu 250 8.94 385 1.7 35 113 35
Cu-15%Nb composite 780 8.90 368 2.4 62 92 62
HSLA steel 1600 7.85 450 25 89 30 30
Pulse length = 10 ms
2 d f ( , )
1/ 2
Bfailure o y
r
o rdf f ( , )Tmax
M1 M2 CC M2
1/ 2
2t pulse
o2d 2Cp Tmax
Bheat f ( , )
t pulse e Thus defining the Coupling Line
Windings for High Field Magnets
10000
Search Region:
Cp
Ultra-short pulse Search Region:
short pulse
M1 y M2
HSLA steels
e
Cu-Be-Co-Ni
1000 Cu-Al2O3
Index M 1 (MPa)
Cu-Nb
Search Region: Material Comment
Be-Coppers long pulse
Continuous and long
Cu-Zr pulse Best choice for low field,
High purity coppers long pulse magnets (heat
Pure Silver limited)
100 GP coppers
Cu-4Sn Short pulse
Cu-Al2O3 composites Best choice for high field,
HC Coppers
H-C Cu-Cd alloys short pulse magnets (heat
Cu H-C Cu-Zr alloys and strength limited)
Al-S150.1 H-C Cu-Cr alloys
Drawn Cu-Nb comps