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Structure of water
Water (H2O) consists of two hydrogen atoms
covalently bonded to one oxygen atom. +

Each hydrogen shares a pair of

electrons with the oxygen. The oxygen
has a greater affinity for electrons than 104.5
the hydrogens, so it pulls the
electrons closer. +

This makes the oxygen slightly negative (indicated by )

and the hydrogens slightly positive (indicated by +).

This creates different charged regions, making water a polar

molecule. Because it has two charged regions it is dipolar.

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Hydrogen bonds
Many of the properties of water are due to its ability to form
hydrogen bonds.

The slight negative charge on the oxygen atom makes it

attract the slightly positive hydrogen atom of another water
molecule.

hydrogen
bond

The numerous hydrogen bonds in water make it a very

stable structure.

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Water as a solvent

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Properties and biological roles of water

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Introducing carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a group of substances used as both
energy sources and structural materials in organisms.

All carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,

with the general formula: Cx(H2O)y.

There are three main groups of carbohydrates:

monosaccharides these are simple sugars, with the

general formula (CH20)n, where n can be 37
disaccharides these are double sugars, formed
from two monosaccharides
polysaccharides these are large molecules formed
from many monosaccharides.

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Glucose
Glucose is an abundant and very important monosaccharide.
It contains six carbon atoms so it is a hexose sugar. Its
general formula is C6H12O6.
Glucose is the major energy source for most cells. It is highly
soluble and is the main form in which carbohydrates are
transported around the body of animals.
The structure of glucose can be represented in different ways:

straight chain ring ring (simplified)

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Alpha and beta glucose
Glucose exists in different forms called structural isomers.
Two common isomers are alpha glucose and beta glucose.
6 6
5 5
alpha 4 1 4 1
beta
glucose glucose
3 2 3 2

The only difference between these two isomers is the position

of the OH group attached to carbon 1. In alpha glucose it is
below the carbon and in beta glucose it is above the carbon.

This minor structural difference has a major effect on the

biological roles of alpha and beta glucose.

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Fructose and galactose
Two other important hexose monosaccharides are fructose
and galactose.

fructose galactose

Fructose is very soluble and is the main sugar in fruits and

nectar. It is sweeter than glucose.
Galactose is not as soluble as glucose and has an important
role in the production of glycolipids and glycoproteins.

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Pentoses
Pentose monosaccharides contain five carbon atoms. Like
hexoses, pentoses are long enough to form a ring.
Two important pentose molecules are the structural isomers
ribose and deoxyribose. These are important constituents
of RNA and DNA.
5 5

4 1 4 1

3 2 3 2

ribose deoxyribose
The only difference between them is that ribose has one
H atom and one OH group attached to carbon 2,
whereas deoxyribose has 2 H atoms and no OH group.

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The formation of disaccharides

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Maltose, sucrose and lactose
Maltose (malt sugar) is
formed from two glucose
molecules joined by an
alpha 14 glycosidic bond.

Sucrose (table sugar) is

formed from glucose and
fructose joined by an
alpha 14 glycosidic bond.

Lactose (milk sugar) is

formed from galactose
and glucose joined by a
beta 14 glycosidic bond.

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Benedicts test for reducing sugars

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Mono- and disaccharides

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What are polysaccharides?
Polysaccharides are polymers containing many
monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Like
disaccharides, polysaccharides are formed by
condensation reactions.

Polysaccharides are mainly used as an energy store and as

structural components of cells.

The major polysaccharides are starch and cellulose in

plants, and glycogen in animals.

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The structure of starch

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Properties and uses of starch
Starch is the major carbohydrate storage molecule in plants.
It is usually stored as
intracellular starch
grains in organelles
called plastids.
Plastids include green
chloroplasts (e.g. in
leaves) and colourless
amyloplasts (e.g. in
potatoes).
Starch is produced from glucose made during photosynthesis.
It is broken down during respiration to provide energy and is
also a source of carbon for producing other molecules.

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Iodine test for starch

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What is cellulose?
Cellulose is another polysaccharide and is the main part of
plant cell walls. It is the most abundant organic polymer.

Unlike starch, cellulose is very strong, and prevents cells

from bursting when they take in excess water.

Cellulose consists of long

chains of beta glucose
molecules joined by beta
14 glycosidic bonds.

The glucose chains form

rope-like microfibrils,
which are layered to form
a network.

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The structure of cellulose

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What is glycogen?
Animals do not store carbohydrate as starch but as glycogen.

Glycogen has a similar

structure to amylopectin,
containing many alpha 16
glycosidic bonds that produce an
even more branched structure.

Glycogen is stored as small

granules, particularly in
muscles and liver.

Glycogen is less dense and more soluble than starch, and is

broken down more rapidly. This indicates the higher
metabolic requirements of animals compared with plants.

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Polysaccharides: true or false?

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Whats the carbohydrate?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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