Gas Cutting WLDNG Process - 06 - Module 6

Indian Institute of Welding-
ANB
Refresher course : Module-06
Gas Welding, Brazing,

soldering and Cutting
IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 1

Contents
Part-1 : Introduction
Part-2 : Welding & related processes
Part-3 : Brazing and soldering
Part-4 : Cutting & edge preparation
Part-5 : Plasma Cutting
Part-6 : Thermal Cutting Standards
Part-7 : Safety
Part-1
Oxy- Acetylene Welding

Development of Welding
Processes
Welding Processes Year Introduced
Carbon arc welding 1887
Thermit welding 1896
Oxyacetylene gas welding 1903
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) 1912
CO2 gas shielded metal arc welding (MAG) 1928
Submerged arc welding (SAW) 1935
Tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) 1947
Metal inert gas welding (MIG) 1948
Electro slag welding (ESW) 1953
Plasma arc welding (PAW) 1963
Explosive welding (EW) 1963
Electron beam welding (EBW) 1965
Laser beam welding (LBW) 1965
Ultrasonic welding 1965
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) 1965
Robotic welding 1975
Welding with programmable control system 1995
Friction stir welding 1995
Gas Welding
Oxy-acetylene welding - commonly Torch

referred to as gas welding - based on Tip
the combustion of oxygen and
acetylene. Filler
When mixed in the correct ratio, an Flame
extremely hot flame is produced
with a temperature of > 3,100oC
Because steel melts at a temperature
greater than 1500oC, oxy-acetylene
is the only gas combination hot
enough to weld steel.
Least investment and very versatile
can be used for welding and brazing
most metals and alloys

Energy Intensity of Welding
Processes
Heat Intensity of Different Welding Processes

Relative Welding Speeds
Welding Process Speeds (cm /min)
Oxyacetylene gas 1
Shielded Metal Arc Welding 10

(SMAW)
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) 12
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) 60
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 50
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) 100

Combustion Chemistry of Acetylene
Fuel gas + Oxygen = CO2 + H2 O

Acetylene C2 H2 + O2 = 2 CO + H2
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 = 4 CO2 + 2H2 O
C2 H2 + 2.5O2 = 2 CO2 + H2 O overall
However, maximum flame temperature for

Acetylene is reached at 55% oxygen stoichiometry
Actual oxygen to fuel gas ratios used are :

Acetylene 1.5 : 1

Hottest point of flame
Acetylene = >3,000 deg C

Primary flame LPG = 2,826 deg C
(or inner cone)
Nozzle
Secondary flame (or outer cone)

Types of flames
Correct mixture
Neutral Greenish, rounded
inner cone
Excess of O2
Oxidising Blueish, sharp
inner cone
Excess of FG
Reducing Long white
luminous feather

Types of Flames
For most applications, a neutral flame is used,
however some materials are different:
Welding brass, and bronze : Oxidising flame
Nickel, and alloys : Neutral to slightly
carburising (reducing)
Copper : Neutral to slightly carburising
(reducing)
Oxy-cutting : Neutral

Gas welding
FLAME
METAL FLUX FILLER
SETTING
Cast Steel Neutral No Steel

Steel Plate Neutral No Steel
Slightly
High Carbon Steel Yes Bronze
Oxidising
Cast Iron (Gray) Neutral Yes Cast Iron
Base
Chrome steel Neutral Yes
metal
Joint design for welding
Thickness Joint recommendation
< 4 mm No special preparation. Butt joint OK

No special preparation.
4-6 mm
Slight root opening recommended
Bevel of 35-45 deg
>6 mm Root upto 3 mm depending on plate
thickness
>19 mm Double bevel with 3 mm root
Gas Welding Techniques
Technique Suitability
Upto 3mm plate thickness
Forehand Pipe welding <10mm wall
thickness
Above 3mm plate thickness

Backhand Pipe welding >6 mm wall thickness
For faster welding
Oxy Fuel Gas Processes
Oxy gas processes are based on

controlled combustion of fuel gas and
oxygen mixture, and consequent
generation of heat
Oxy gas processes are popular for

welding, brazing, soldering and cutting
of steel

Fuel Gases
Acetylene ( C2H2 )
Propane ( C3H8 )
LPG ( Mixture of propane and butane )
Methane (CH4 ) - Natural gas
Hydrogen ( H2 )
Propylene ( C3H6 )
Butane ( C4H10 )

Fuel gases and their characteristics
Flame Heat of
Oxygen:FG Temperature combustion
Deg C MJ/m
Acetylene 2.5 3087 55
Propane 5 2526 104
Hydrogen 0.5 2660 12

Heating Effect of Fuel Gases
OXY OXY-LPG
ACETYLENE
HEAT CONCENTRATION HEAT CONCENTRATION
TOTAL 54,772 Kj/m3 TOTAL 95,758 Kj/m3

Primary 18,890 Primary 10,433
Secondary 35,882 Secondary 85,325
Flame Temp 3,160 deg C Flame temp 2,820 deg C
Other processes using oxy-fuel flame
Cleaning Fishtail burners are normally used
Large handheld heating blowpipes

are used. Custom built burners are
Preheating used which are configured as per
requirement for heating large
irregular areas.
Large handheld heating blowpipes
Straightening
are convenient for local heating
Gas Equipment
CYLINDER
FLASHBACK
VALVE
ARRESTOR
OXYGEN
ACETYLENE REGULATOR
REGULATOR
FLASHBACK
ARRESTOR CUTTING
TORCH
WELDING
TORCH
OXYGEN AND
ACETYLENE FLASHBACK
HOSES ARRESTORS
ACETYLENE (OXYGEN CYLINDER

CYLINDER (PAINTED BLACK)
(PAINTED MATROON) T-CQ3

-2

Cylinders
Max
Service Pressure Construction Connection Colour
(Kg)
Oxygen 150 Steel body RH Black
Steel body. Porous

kisselghur /Calcium
Dissolved
15 Silicate & acetone LH Maroon
Acetylene inside for dissolving
acetylene.
A cylinder normally contains about 6 cu.m of gas

Cylinder manifolds

Part-3
Brazing and soldering

Brazing
Economical for complex assemblies

Simple way to join for large joints
Excellent stress and heat distribution
Ability to join dissimilar metals
Ability to join non metals to metals
Ability to join different thickness parts
Joints require no finishing

Principle of brazing
Parts must be joined

without melting
Melting point of filler metal
> 450 deg C
Molten filler metal must be
able to wet surface of base
metals
Capillary flow is the
dominant physical principle

Brazing / Conditions of Wetting
Chemical affinity between the No wetting Wetting

molecules of the solid base metal
and the molten filler metal.
Base metal surface must be
clean and active when the molten
filler makes contact with it at the
brazing temperature.
There may be some diffusion No wetting
or alloying between the base and
the filler metal. For spreading
Surface tension of molten filler
should be low enough
Brazing / Types of Brazed Joints
Butt
Lap
Modifications of
butt and lap

Brazing Processes
Brazing processes are classified based on
methods of heating:
Torch brazing
Furnace brazing
Induction brazing
Dip brazing
Resistant brazing
Infrared brazing

Brazing Processes : Torch Brazing
Simplest and most widely

used process
Oxygen-fuel gas mixture
burned for heating
Matching filler alloy and flux
required
Usually used as a manual
process
Automation is possible

Furnace Brazing
Brazing is carried out inside a
furnace.
Fixturing / parts are assembled
before loading in the furnace.
Pre-placement of filler and flux
is necessary.
Vacuum or inert gas or special
atmosphere is possible
depending on the nature of the
base metal / job.
Batch/continuous production is
possible.
Induction Brazing
Heat generated by flow of

induced current
Frequency used commonly

from 1khz to 10khz. System
upto 450khz available
Assembly to be made by
self-locating or non-interfering
fixturing

Brazing Processes : Dip Brazing
Molten metal (filler) bath

Molten chemical (flux) bath
Pre-assembled parts are
dipped in the bath
Advantageous for
applications involving
multiple joints, complicated
shape and large areas
Suitable for Batch
production
Brazing Filler Alloys for General
Applications
Filler Alloy Melting Range C Applied to
Ag-Cu-Zn-Cd 595-700 Cu, Cu-alloys

Ag-Cu-Zn 680-850 Steel, SS
Silver Alloy
Ag-Cu-P 640-780
Ag-Cu 778-825
Cu-Zn 865-900 Cu, Cu-alloys
Copper Alloys
Cu-P 718-900 Steel
Alu-Alloys Al-Si 565-625 Al, Al alloys
SS & Heat
Ni Alloys >875
Resisting Alloys

Problems in brazing
Problems Causes
-Wrong filler -Poor fit-up

No flow
-Low temp. -Dirty parts
No wetting
-Too little flux -Bad vacuum
-Wrong filler -High temp.
Excess flow
-Excess filler -Time too long
or Excess wetting
-No stop-off -High temp.
Erosion of -Time too long

parent metal -Excess filler / Wrong filler

Braze-welding
Similar to fusion welding but the filler wire
melting point is lower than the parent metal.
No fusion of parent metal or capillary action
takes place.
Main difference between brazing & braze
welding is in the joint clearance.
Brazing generally requires a joint clearance
of 0.04-0.20mm. This allows the liquid filler
to be drawn between the two closely fitted
surfaces by capillary action.
Braze welding does not require such a close
fitting joint and hence larger quantities of filler
alloy are used.
Soldering
Parts must be joined without melting
Melting point of solder (filler) < 450 deg C
Molten solder must be able to wet surface of

base metals and flow by capillary action
between the surfaces to be joined.

Soldering methods
Method Application
manual working, low volume and
Air-FG torch
maintenance jobs
manual working, electrical &
Soldering iron
maintenance jobs
Furnace batch production and automation
Wave soldering automatic soldering of electronic PCB
Vapour phase in-line continuous process for

soldering electronic parts
Induction continuous automated production
Selection of flux for soldering
Rosin Organic Inorganic Special
Al & Al bronze
Brass
Copper
Steel/SS
Cast iron
Tin & Tin bronze
Zinc
Fluxes
Inorganic fluxes Organic fluxes
Zinc chloride Stearic acid
Ammonium chloride Oleic acid
Tin chloride Glutamic acid
HCl Hydrazine hydrobromide
Phosphoric acid Acid based or acid
Metal chloride forming organics

Solders
Solder Workpiece
Sn-Sb-Pb Copper, brass
Sn-Zn Aluminium
Sn-Ag, Sn-Cu SS, copper,
Cd-Ag Aluminium
Zn-Al Aluminium
Indium-Sn Glass to glass, glass to metal

Brazing & Soldering - comparison
Brazing Soldering
Mech. strength Higher Lower
Working temp > 450oC < 450oC
Versatile Less More

Part-4
Oxy-cutting and other

edge preparation
processes

Various cutting processes
WATER
OXY PLASMA LASER ROUTER
JET
MS
SS
TITANIUM
ALUMINIUM
CERAMIC
RUBBER
KEVLAR
GLASS
LAMINATES
Oxygen cutting process
Job is preheated to cherry red (around 850C)
Release pure oxygen stream
The pure oxygen starts oxidation (ignition) of
the hot metal which is exothermic Helps
sustain reaction
Oxide produced is molten at that temperature
Kinetic energy of O2 removes molten oxide
producing kerf
These conditions are satisfied by Steel & Titanium.

Therefore these metals can be cut by this process
Oxy-fuel gas cutting
Most widely used cutting
process
Can be used for cutting
MS and low alloy steels
Uses a wide range of fuel
gases acetylene, propane,
LPG, Methane, Hydrogen
Used in foundries for
cutting off runners and
risers
Used for machine cutting
or hand cutting
Oxy-cutting Torch
Nozzle mix system
Torch head
Cutting oxygen
Heating oxygen
Acetylene
Mixed gas
Cutting oxygen
Cutting Nozzle
Pre-heat flame View from the bottom

Oxygen cutting
NOZZLE
FUEL GAS AND
PREHEAT OXYGEN
DIRECTION OF CUT MIXTURE
PRE-HEAT FLAME CUTTING OXYGEN
CUTTING STREAM
DRAG LINES

Drag Lines
As well as the roughness of the cut face, drag lines across the
surface of the cut can give the operator an indication if the cutting
speed is correct and the right cutting oxygen velocity is being
used.

Common defects in Oxy-cutting
DEFECTS CAUSES
Fluted cut
Low speed
-gouging at the bottom
Large preheat flame

Top edge melt
Oxygen pressure low
Heavy slag Large preheat flame

If the pre-heat temperature is too high it can have an effect on
the top edge of the cut. Too fierce a flame can cause melting of
the face or upper edge, this defect is called 'top edge melt'

Example of a good quality cut

Effects of alloying elements
ALLOYING ELEMENT MAX LIMIT (%)
Carbon 0.3
Manganese 10
Silicon 2
Chromium 5
Nickel 3
SPEED / CONSUMPTION (%)
Effects of oxygen purity
175
150
O2 CONSUMPTION
125
100
75
50
CUTTING SPEED
25
100 99.5 99 98.5 98
O2 PURITY %

Cutting parameters
High speed vs standard nozzle
1.0
m/min
0.75 HIGH SPEED

CUTTING SPEED
0.5
0.25 STANDARD
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
PLATE T H I C K N E S S mm > >
Plate Edge Preparation
Flame Planing Machine
Torch
CONTROLS Carriages
TBA
WORKPIECE

Triple Burner Assembly
Direction of travel
3
2
Scrap
IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates

56
Profile Cutting & Nesting
OPTIMISE PLATE UTILISATION

Programming Station
CUSTOMERS
ORDER DESIGN
BOM DXF
FILES
FINISHED
GOODS PRODN PART TOOL PATH CNC
PLANNING LIBRARY NESTING GENERATION CUTTING
RAW PROGRAMMING
GRAPHIC
MATERIALS MIS MIS
STATION
EDITOR

Problems in Profile Cutting
PROCESS INFLUENCE:
THERMAL DISTORTION DURING CUTTING
START START BY UNCUT
PIERCING START
BRIDGE
SOLUTION: NOZZLE PATH CONTROL

Adjusting Kerf
TORCH PATH
KERF FINISH START
COUNTER
CLOCKWISE
TRAVEL KERF OFFST =
KERF WIDTH
ON RH SIDE
CLOCKWISE OF TRAVEL
TRAVEL
START
SCRAP
DESIRED JOB
DIMENSION
JOB

Kerf Setting
KERF
LEFT RIGHT
INSIDE CCW CW
PROFILE
OUTSIDE CW CCW

Piercing
RETRACTION PIERCING SEQUENCES
(UPTO 40MM TK)
3-5 20-25
mm mm 3 4
1 2
Preheat Retract Release O2 Normal
& Move
Part-5
Plasma and other

cutting processes

Plasma Cutting
Originally introduced in around 1950s for

non ferrous cutting
Often only method for non-ferrous and SS.
Suitable for profile or straight cutting
Suitable for Machine/hand cutting
Often used for cutting MS

Plasma cutting of MS
Advantage- high cutting speed at lower thickness
Produces a taper cut which is often not acceptable
Taper not prominent in thin sheets. Therefore, popular for
cutting sheet metal, using low priced air plasma.
May be used low thickness MS (upto 20mm) for speed
advantage, compromising quality
WI produces good quality cut at high speed upto 40mm
thickness, with insignificant taper
Suitable for profile/straight cutting
Suitable for machine cutting(high amps) or hand cutting (low
amps)
Normally used for square edge cutting but possible to cut V
edge with expensive equipment
Plasma cutting equipment
PLASMA
GAS
PLASMA
CUTTING
TORCH
SECONDARY
GAS
RECTIFIER HIGH
POWER FREQUENCY
SOURCE SOURCE
Air plasma
Hot ionised gas stream = plasma

(Temp = 30-40 thousand degC)

Dual flow plasma
-

Water injection plasma
-
Steam Layer

Plasma cutting
CUT QUALITY
T-1>T-2>T-3>T-4
T-1
T-2
T3 WORKPIECE
T-4
TAPER CUT
SURFACE
Water Injection Plasma
Underwater cutting

Plasma Cutting parameters

Commonly used plasma gases
Open-arc WI
Plasma gas Secondary Plasma gas
Air
Nitrogen
Argon
Argon+Hydrogen

(60% + 40%)
Nitrogen

(99.999%)
Oxygen
Plasma cutting
Further refinements
WATER MUFFLER REDUCE UV, NOISE
UNDERWATER REDUCE UV, NOISE

CUTTING FURTHER
O2 PLASMA WITH FASTER CUTTING

WATER INJECTION OF MS
FINE PLASMA NARROW KERF

Oxy vs plasma cutting of MS
OXY FUEL OPEN PLASMA WI-PLASMA
UV, IR, Noise Low V. High Contained
Max Thickness >200 30-50 30-50
Kerf 0.9-3 3 --
HAZ (mm) 0.6 0.4 --
Suitable for MS MS, SS, Alu, etc. MS, SS
Acceptable < 6mm
Cut Squareness Good Bevelled > 6mm Good
Good < 6mm
Cut Surface Good Good
Fair > 6mm
Cutting speed Low High High
Equipment cost Low High V. High
Water-jet cutting
High pressure (30-60 K PSI) water is forced through 0.1-0.6

dia orifice
Efficiency increased by adding abrasive powder with water
Generally effective upto 3mm thickness
Velocity achieved : 1700-3000 ft/sec
Can cut metals & non metals
Profile cutting possible using
CNC machine
Excellent cut quality
Water-jet cutting
Cutting of marble/ceramic by water-jet for architectural

applications. Note the inlay work on the floor

Laser cutting
The heat is provided by laser
Assist gas removes the
vaporised/molten material to
form the kerf
O2 used as assist gas for MS
cutting (1max) to improve
speed
CO2 Lasers are most popular
Can be used for profile cutting
Provides high quality clean
cut. Low HAZ

Laser Cutting
Possible to cut intricate shapes

Laser drilling
Various techniques of Laser drilling/micromachining

Laser drilling
Close up picture of Laser drilled hole 100uM dia
In Stainless Steel In Plastic (PVC)

Laser drilling
Laser drilling rigs for petroleum exploration
-Swan Energy Inc, USA

Performance comparison of
various cutting methods

Other cutting processes
PROCESS APPLICATION
High alloy steel where normal
Powder cutting oxy-cutting is not possible
Flame gouging Removal of weld deposit in MS
Scarfing Removal of surface defects in MS
Carbon arc Severing of MS,SS,CI, Bronze,
cutting/gouging Al/Mg alloys. Gouging.
Oxy-arc
cutting/ gouging Severing MS, alloy steel
Plasma arc
gouging Gouging of MS, SS, alloy steel, Alu.
Flame gouging nozzle
Pre-heat flame
Oxygen stream

Part-6
Thermal Cutting
Standards

Thermal cutting standards
Acceptance testing of Oxygen

cutting machines testing the
DIN EN 28206
accuracy and operational
characteristics
Classification of thermal cuts -
DIN EN ISO
Geometrical product spec and
9013
quality tolerances
Quality standard for gas cut
WES 2801
surface
DIN EN ISO 9013
1 2 3 4
Indication of quality of cut
surface & tolerance class
1 2 3 4
Main Perpendicularity/
Mean height Tolerance
number of angularity
of profile RZ5 class
standard tolerance, u
Angularity of Roughness of
cut surface Dimensional
ISO 9013 cut surface to
along cutting accuracy
plate surface direction
Part-7
Safety

Safety in oxy-cutting & welding
PERSONAL PROTECTION
Protection Protection
Recommendation
of from
Use correct goggles
IR Radiation,
Eyes -shade # 3-6 for cutting
Spatter
-shade # 4-8 for welding
IR Radiation,
Skin Spatter, Wear leather gloves & apron
Hot metal, Burn
Apparel Spatter, Fire Wear apron
Feet Spatter, Burn Wear safety shoes

USE OF ACETYLENE
Do not draw more than 15% acetylene content per

hour from a cylinder
Always use cylinder in upright position
Always use correct hose, regulator & fittings
Do not use oxy-acetylene torch in a closed space
Do not use copper piping/parts in acetylene line
Never use Acetylene at a pressure higher than 1kg.

BACKFIRE
Flame burns back inside torch, usually with a shrill
sound, or flame is extinguished with a loud pop.
Sustained flashback indicates something seriously
wrong. In the event of backfire:
Immediately shut of the oxygen supply, (otherwise
high pressure oxygen can get into low pressure
FG line causing mixed gas and explode).
Then shut off FG supply
Set the pressures correctly
Clean the nozzle and seat, start again
Flashback
A flame and its pressure wave (75x gas pressure in bar) travel
back through the torch and into the gas system.
Flame
Symptoms
A bang Pressure MIXED
Wave GAS
Hose Direction of Flashback

Toward Regulator
Cause: Improper purging & pressures of O2 & DA lines.
The flame speed is too fast to be blocked by the check valve in
the hose and proceeds right past it through the hose. Use of
suitable Flash Back Arrestor recommended.
Safety in brazing
For manual brazing safety requirements are

essentially same as in gas welding
Use goggles for eye protection (shade # 3-4
for gas brazing)
Additional safety measures must be taken
for protection against flux & toxic metal
vapours by assuring ventilation &
respiratory protection as required

Safety in soldering
Precautions for fire hazard, specially

when flame is used,
Use goggles for eye protection

(use shade # 1.5-3 for soldering with gas torch)
Ventilation to remove toxic metal &

chemical vapours,
Precaution from hot metal and burns.

Safety in plasma cutting
To protect Protection from Recommendation
IR, UV Radiation, Use correct goggles
Eyes
Spatter (shade # 8-14)
IR, UV Radiation, Wear leather gloves
Skin Spatter, Hot metal, Burn & apron
Apparel Spatter, Fire Wear apron
Ear Sound Use ear plug
Feet Spatter, Burn Wear safety shoes
Follow safety
Body Electric shock instructions
Use exhaust,
General Toxic Fumes
Ventilate
Eye protection
Gouging

Safety in Laser, Water Jet
Eye Use glasses
Laser Fumes Use exhaust/ventilation

Electrical
Follow safety rules
safety
Sound Use ear plugs
Water
Jet Physical
Use suitable guard
Injury
Contributors to this presentation:
1) S. Ghoshal
1) Ranajoy Banerjee

Thank You

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Indian Institute of Welding-

Gas Welding, Brazing,

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 1

Oxy- Acetylene Welding

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 3

Oxy-acetylene welding - commonly Torch

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 5

Heat Intensity of Different Welding Processes

Shielded Metal Arc Welding 10

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) 60

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 50

Electron Beam Welding (EBW) 100

Fuel gas + Oxygen = CO2 + H2 O

However, maximum flame temperature for

Actual oxygen to fuel gas ratios used are :

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 8

Acetylene = >3,000 deg C

Secondary flame (or outer cone)

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 9

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 10

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 11

Cast Steel Neutral No Steel

< 4 mm No special preparation. Butt joint OK

Above 3mm plate thickness

Oxy gas processes are based on

Oxy gas processes are popular for

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 15

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 16

Acetylene 2.5 3087 55

Propane 5 2526 104

Hydrogen 0.5 2660 12

HEAT CONCENTRATION HEAT CONCENTRATION

TOTAL 54,772 Kj/m3 TOTAL 95,758 Kj/m3

Cleaning Fishtail burners are normally used

Large handheld heating blowpipes

ACETYLENE (OXYGEN CYLINDER

(PAINTED MATROON) T-CQ3

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 20

Oxygen 150 Steel body RH Black

Steel body. Porous

A cylinder normally contains about 6 cu.m of gas

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 21

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 22

Brazing and soldering

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 23

Economical for complex assemblies

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 24

Parts must be joined

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 25

Chemical affinity between the No wetting Wetting

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 27

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 28

Simplest and most widely

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 29

Heat generated by flow of

Frequency used commonly

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 31

Molten metal (filler) bath

Ag-Cu-Zn-Cd 595-700 Cu, Cu-alloys

Alu-Alloys Al-Si 565-625 Al, Al alloys

IIW-ANB refresher course for Transition candidates 33

-Wrong filler -Poor fit-up

Erosion of -Time too long