In shaft power cycles, power is in form of generated power.

In air craft cycles,

whole power is in the form of thrust.
Propulsion units include turbojets, turbofans and turboprops.
 In turbojets and turbofans, the whole thrust is generated in propelling nozzles.
In turboprops, most of the thrust is produced by a propeller with only a small
contribution from exhaust nozzle.
Jet aircraft engine compressor stage GE J79
Jet aircraft engine turbine Stage GE J79
Jet aircraft engine combustion chamber GE J79
The turbine is designed to produce just enough power to drive the compressor.
The gas leaving the turbine at high pressure and temperature is expanded to
atmospheric pressure in a propelling nozzle to produce high velocity jet. The
propelling nozzle refers to the component in which the working fluid is
expanded to give a high velocity jet.
http://www.learnengineering.org/2013/02/worki
ng-of-gas-turbine-engine.html
Part of the air delivered by an LP compressor or fan bypasses the core of the
engine (HP compressor, combustion and turbines) to form an annular propulsive
jet or cooler air surrounding the hot jet. This results in a jet of lower mean
velocity resulting in better propulsive efficiency and reduced noise.
For lower speed, a combination of propeller and exhaust jet provides the best
propulsive efficiency. It has two stage compressor and can-type combustion
chamber. Turboprops are also designed with a free turbine driving the propeller
or propeller plus LP compressor (called free-turbine turboprop).
The net momentum thrust is due to the rate of change of momentum
.
F m(C j Ca )

Ca is the velocity of air at inlet relative to engine

Cj Velocity of air at exit relative to engine.
The net pressure thrust is

A j ( Pj Pa )

Thus, the total thrust is

.
F m(C j Ca ) Aj ( Pj Pa )
 Propulsive efficiency is a measure of the effectiveness with which the propulsive dust is
being used for propelling the aircraft but it is not the efficiency of energy conversion.

useful propulsive energy (or thrust power), FCa

p .
.
FCa unused K.E. of the jet, m(C j Ca ) 2 / 2
.
m Ca (C j Ca )
.
m[(Ca (C j Ca ) (C j Ca ) 2 / 2]
2
Thrust power
1 (C j / Ca ) p
Change in K.E.
FCa
.
m[(C 2j Ca2 ) / 2]
 Energy conversion efficiency:
useful K.E. for propulsion
e
Rate of enrgy supplied
.
m(C 2j Ca2 ) / 2
.
m f Qnet

Overall efficiency:

useful work
o p e
energy supplied
.
FCa m Ca (C j Ca )
.
.
m f Qnet m f Qnet
 Specific fuel combustion: fuel consumption per unit thrust, i.e. kg/h N = 0.12

Ca 1
o
sfc Qnet

Specific thrust, Fs

Thrust
Fs
Mass flow rate of air
mf m f / ma f

F F / ma Fs
 Diffuser: Velocity decreases in
diffuser while pressure increases
Nozzle: Velocity increases in
nozzle while pressure decreases

R
To1 Toa Ta C / 2c p , but c p
2

1
a

R
To1 Toa Ta [1 C a / 2(
2
Ta )]
1
1 2 1 2
Ta [1 C a / RT a )] Ta [1 M ]
2 2
 Isentropic efficiency of a diffuser

To1s 1 To1s Ta
Po1
i
Pa Ta To1 Ta

(Ta To1s Ta ) / Ta 1

1 (To1s Ta ) / Ta 1

1 i (To1s Ta ) / Ta ) 1
2
Ca
[1 i ] 1
2c p Ta
1 2
1 i Ma

The rest of the components ( compressor, turbine combustion chamber) are treated
before.
Po1 Pa
The ram efficiency is
r
Poa Pa
Propelling nozzle

Propelling nozzle is the component in which the working fluid is expanded to give a high
velocity jet.

Nozzle Efficiency To4 T5

j
To4 T5 s
for adiabatic flow
To5 To4
 But P Po5 Po4 due to friction losses.

1 1
To4 T5 j (To4 )(1 '
) jTo4 [1 k 1
To4 / T5 k
( Po4 / P5 )

for un-choked nozzle (Mj<1); P5=Pa

For choked nozzle ( Max. rate is reached) M=1, P5=Pc

To check if it is choked or not

To5 To4
 1 2
2
To4 To5 c
1 s 1 Ms
T5 T5 2c pTs 2

for choked condition M=1 To4 1 1

1 (1)
2

Tc 2 2

But isentropic efficiency is

To4 Tc 1
j or Tcs To 4 (To4 Tc )
To4 Tcs j
Tc Tc
1 j (1 ) Tcs
To4 To4
Pc is calculated as
k k

Pc Tc k 1 Tc k 1
'
1 j (1 )
Po4 To4 To4

substituting for

To4 k 1

Tc k

k k

Pc 1 2 k 1 1 k 1 k 1
1 (1 1
Po4 j k 1) j k 1
if Pa Pc Ps Pa (unchoked)

Pa Pc Ps Pc (choked)
To calculate A5 of nozzle

.
m 5 C5 As As m/ 5 C5

.
For choked nozzle, As m/ c Cc where Cc kRTc
Example 1: Simple turbojet cycle

Ta 255.7 K , c 0.87, i 0.93; b 0.98

r 8; To31200 K , t 0.90; j 0.95
m 0.99; Pb 4% of compressor P
C a 270 m/s
Required sfc,

1
To1 Ta (1 M 2)
2
M Ca / RTa 0.84
 2
C
To1 Ta a 292 K
2c p

Po1 C
2
0.93 * 270 2
1 a 1
p
a 2c p Ta 2 * 1.005 * 1000 * 255.7
(1.132) 3.5 1.54

Po 2 rPo1 6.67bar

1 1
To2 To1 [1 (r 1] 564.5 K
c c

To 3 1200 K ( given)
 Pb
Po3 Po2 (1 ) 6.4bar
PD2
m wT wc ; To To C p (To 2 To1 ) / m Cpg
4 3 a

To4 ` 959 K
g
1 g 1
po 4 / p O 3 1 (1 To4 / To3 ) , 1.33
t
Po4 2.327bar

1 1 1
Po 4 / Pc 1 / 1

1.194

j 1
Po 4 / Pa Po 4 / Pc choking nozzle ; Pc Pa
State 5; Pc Pa , choking; M 5 1, Ps Pc Pa
1 2
2
To 5 Cs
1 1 Ms
Tc 2c p Ts 2
2
Ts Tc (To5 To4 ), no heat loss & mech. work
1
2
Tc To4 ( ) 822.01K
1
Po4 Po4
P5 Pc 1.215bar , 1.914
( Po4 / Pc ) Pc
Pc
s c 0.515 kg / m 3 , R 287
RTc
C 5 C c M c RTc 560.8m / s, M 1.0, M 0.84
Notes : Cs Ca (560 270)
.
m As Cs A5 / m 1 / 5C5 0.00346m 2 s / kg

m As C s A5 / m 1 / 5 c5 0.00346 m 2 s / kg
As
sp. thrust ; Fs (C s C a ) ( p s p a ) 525.2
m
To2 564.5, To3 To2 635.5
chart : f 0.0174 f fth / b 0.0178
3600 f
sfc 0.122kg / N
Fs
FCa Ca 1 270 1
0.185kg / sn
m f net sfc net ( 0.122 ) 43000 *1000
3600
Example:2: Turbofan Analysis

Overall pressure ratio given

Po3
19, sf st sc 0.9
Po1 m c
B3
Pb Po4 Po3 1.25 m h
n 0.95
sea level Pa =1 bar Ta=288 K
m 0.99
m a 115kg / s
C a 0.
 Po2
S 2 : Po2 Po 1.65bar
Po 1
1
n 1
1
To2 / To1 ( Po2 / Po1 ) n
To 337.7 K , 1.4,
2

S 3 : Po3 / Po1 ) p o1 19bar
n 1

To3 / To2 ( Po3 / Po2 ) ( ) To3 734 K
n
S 4 : To4 1300 K , Po4 p o3 Pb 17.75
n 1 1
S5 : t , 1.333
n
 c HPT m
m m h C p (To To ) m h (C P )(To To )
g 4 5 a 3 2

To5 949.7 K
n
To5 n 1
Po5 / Po4 , Po5 4.415bar
To
4
S 6 : f m LPT
m a C PA (TO2 To1 ) m m h C Pg (TO5 TO6 )
TO6 To5 C Pa (1 B)(To2 To1 ) / m C Pg 773.7
n 1
n
Po6 To6
Po6 1.78bar
Po5 To5

check for choking of both nozzles ( hot and cold)

Pa Pc choking
Pa Pc unchoked

1
Po6 1 1
S 7: : 1 1.914; Po6 / / Pa 1.78
Pc n 1
compare; Po6 / / p a p o6 / p c Pa Pc , unchoked
Pa 1
To6 T7 nTo6 1 ( ) 98.5, 1.333
Po6
T7 To6 98.5 675.2 K
C 7 2c P (To7 T7 ); c P 1147, To 7 To 6 ,
2

adiabatic and no mech. work

C7= 476 m/s

Notes : a7 kRT7 508.2 m / s M 7 1

for cold nozzle ( do same)
k
k 1
Po2 1 k 1 Po2
1 1.965, k 1.4; but 1.65
Pc N k Pa
Po2 Po2
orPa Pc , unchoked ; P8 Pa 1bar
Pa Pc
note:
Nozzles are independent of each other regarding choking.
 1

Pa

To2 T8 N To2 1 T8 294.9 K
Po
2
C8 2cPa (To2 T8 ), cPa 1007; C8 293m / s
2

Notes: a8=344.2; M8<1

m a Bm a
m h 28.75kg / s; m c 86.25kg / s
1 B 1 B
Fh m h C 7 13700 N ; Fc m c C8 25300 N
Ftotal 39000 N ; Fs 39000 / 115 339.13 N / kg / s
f (To 3 / o 4 ) 566 K , To3 734 K ) Fth 0.016
 .
fact f th / b ( 1.0 assumed ); m f 3600 fm h 1656kg fuel / h
m f
sfc 0.0425kg / h.N
Ftotal
Titanium
Nickel
Steel
Aluminium
Composites
Engine material usage has changed significantly over the latter part of the last
century. Titanium and Nickel now dominate. The increased temperature limits of
advanced Titanium alloys has enabled its use in significant parts of the HP
compressor, giving rise to current engine usage by weight of over 30%.
Considerable effort has also been directed at Nickel alloy development, with its
very high temperature capabilities making it the most suitable material for all the
hot end engine components. Nickel usage in engine by weight now exceeds 40%.
Steel is still used for shafts and bearing structures, due principally to its ductility.
Aluminium and composites form a relatively small part of the engines weight,
generally due to poor temperature limits. Future advances may see the use of
metal matrix composites in compressors discs to significantly reduce weight, whilst
in the longer term, ceramic matrix composites in turbines have the potential to
withstand even higher temperatures.
Clappered + 4% efficiency Wide-chord fan
 Wide-chord Fan Technology
1st generation: 2nd generation:1995
1984

DB/SPFconstruction

Honeycomb construction
Fan Section
 Improvements in Materials

Equiaxed Directionally
Single Crystal
Crystal Structure Solidified Structure
 Turbine Cooling

Cooling air
Single pass Multi-pass Thermal Barrier
Coating
 Cooling
Film
Coolant Air
Film Cooling

Hot
Gas
Hot
Gas

Coolant Air
First Nozzle

First Blade
 STRUCTURE & DYNAMICS

Blade Vibrations Forced Vibration

Arises from the movement of the rotor through stationary disturbances such as upstream stator wakes,
support struts, inlet distortions, or by forcing functions such as rotating stall.
Leads to high stresses and failure when the excitation frequency coincides with blade natural frequency.
Almost all the sources must be harmonics of the rotating speed of engine.

Blade Vibrations Flutter

Arises by aerodynamic effects in the axial compressor.
Occurs at frequencies that are not multiples of engine order and at different locations on the compressor
operating map.

Vibration Modes Natural Modes

Occur at characteristic frequencies determined by the distribution of mass and stiffness resulting from
the variable thickness of the blade area.
Vibration Modes
Typical Vibration Modes
Flap Modes

Torsional Modes
Rotor blade with 1F vibration mode

Disk Modes

Rotor blade with 1T vibration mode

The natural frequency or rotor vibration
Reduced with increasing temperature Because of reduction in Youngs Modulus
Increased at high speed Because of centrifugal stiffening
Campbell diagram
Typical vibration mode of a rotor
in holographic image

Campbell Diagram

A design tool to estimate whether engine operates in resonance condition or not.

Engine order : Excitation frequency
Resonance condition : Coincidence of a natural frequency with exciting frequency
Stresses on Blade
Centrifugal Stress
Centrifugal Tensile Stress
Limiting rotor tip speed and hub-tip ratio (i.e., blade length).
A factor in the hot section of gas turbines in conjunction with creep effects.
The maximum centrifugal stress occurs at the blade root.
Centrifugal Bending Stress
Generated if the centers of gravity of shroud, foil, root are not located on the common radial axis.

Gas Flow Induced Steady State Stress

Bending stress superimposed on the centrifugal stress
Proportional to the aerodynamic loading on blade
Gas Flow Induced Alternating Stress
Caused by stator vane wakes and wakes from support struts, etc...
Thermal Stress
Blades are subjected to severe thermal stresses during transient conditions such as startup and
shutdowns.
Typical thermal-mechanical cycle for a first stage turbine blade

Tension

Shut-down

Strain Metal Temperature

Unload
Load
Base Load
Acceleration
Warm-up
Compression

Blade Failure due to Overspeed

25% overspeed 56% increase in resulting stress
Compressor Turbine
- Blades/Vanes : Cr-Alloy, Titanium - Blades/Vanes : Ni-Alloy
(Forging, Fabrication) (Casting)
- Discs : Ni-Alloy
- Discs : Ni-Alloy
(Forging)
- Cylinders : Cast iron, Titanium
(Forging)
(Forging, Casting, Fabrication)
Combustor
- Liner/Transition : Ni-Alloy, Hestalloy
(Fabrication)
- Casing : Steel
(Fabrication, Casting)
 MATERIAL SELECTION
Issues Related to the Material Selection
High temperature material
100oF 10% increase in power
2.4% increase in thermal efficiency
Historically, 30oF/year (1939-1979)
Resistance to the material selection : Fatigue(HCF/LCF), Creep, Corrosion
Requirements & Considerations
Mechanical strength
Under 600oF : Yield and endurance for low temperature
Above 600oF: Creep and endurance for high temperature
Corrosion resistance
Low temperature
Hot corrosion
Workability / Availability
Casting/Forging
Machining
 FAILURE MODES IN GAS TURBINE BLADING
42% of engine failures are related to the blade-problems
Failure Modes in Gas Turbine Blading
Low Cycle Fatigue - Compressor and turbine discs
High Cycle Fatigue - Compressor/turbine blades & discs, compressor vanes
Thermal Fatigue - Turbine vanes, combustor components
Environmental Attack (Oxidation, Sulphidation, Hot Corrosion, Standby Corrosion) - Hot
section blades & vanes, transition pieces, combustors
Creep Damage - Hot section blades & vanes
Erosion & Wear
Impact Overload Damage (Due to FOD, DOD or Compressor surge)
Thermal Aging
Combined Failure Mechanisms - Creep/fatigue, Corrosion/fatigue, oxidation/erosion, etc.
 FATIGUE
High Cycle Fatigue (HCF)
Caused by aerodynamic excitations (Blade passing frequency) or by self-excited vibration and flutter.
Whereas fluctuating stresses may not be very high, the maximum stress at resonance can increase
dramatically.
S-N (Stress vs. Number of cycles) curve

Low Cycle Fatigue (LCF)

Occurs as a result of machine start/stop cycles.
Associated with machines that have been in operation for several years.
Minute flaws grow into crack which result in rupture.
Predominant in the bores and bolt hoe areas of compressor and turbine disks which operate under
centrifugal stresses.

Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue (TMF)

Associated with thermal stresses, e.g., differential expansion of hot section components during startup &
shutdown.
Temperature variation in hot section blading : 200oC/minute
 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

High temperature oxidation

Occurs when nickel based superalloys are exposed to temperature greater than 1000oF (538oC).
Nickel-oxide layer on the airfoil surface
When subjected to vibration and start/stop thermal cycles during operation, nickel-oxide layer tends to
crack and spall.

Sulphidation
A reaction which occurs when sulpher (in fuel) reacts with oxygen and attacks the base metal.
Particular concern when it is found in the blade root region or along the leading or trailing edges, or under
the blade shroud.

Hot corrosion
Combined oxidation-sulphidation phenomena of hot section parts.

Standby corrosion
Occurs during a turbine shutdown and as the result of air moisture and corrosive being present in the
machine.
Blade fatigue strength is significantly reduced by corrosion.
 CREEP
Occurs when components operates over time under high stresses and temperature.
Creep Curve

15oC increase in blade metal temperature

cuts creep life by 50%.

Creep-sensitive parts in engine

Hot section parts and the final stages of high pressure ratio compressors.
Mid span region of the airfoil which experiences the highest temperature.
Disk rim region where high stresses and temperature can cause time dependent plastic deformation.
 EROSION/WEAR

Particulate Erosion
Compressor
Particle size causing erosion : 5~10 microns
Reduction in the surge margin can occur if the tips get severely eroded.

Hot Gas Erosion

Turbine
Occurs when the cooling boundary layer on the blade surface breaks down even for short periods of time or
cooling effectiveness drops.
The surface roughness of the blade contacted by the hot gas are subjected to high thermal stress cycles.
After several cycles, damage takes places and the increased roughness (erosion) worsens the problems.
First stage turbine vane

Combined Mechanism
Corrosion: reduce blade section size and drop the fatigue strength
Erosion in the blade attachment regions reduce damping causing increased vibration amplitudes and
alternating stresses.