Key to Variation

No two people speak exactly the

same. (Holmes, 127 c)

AND no one person speaks exactly the

same all the time.

1/14
 Dialect
vs
Language

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1987, p. 287. 2/14
 Schematic
Dialect
Continuum

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1987, p. 25. 3/14
 Dialect Continua in Europe

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1987, p. 25. 4/14
 Dialect Chain:
Understanding your Neighbors
The [vernacular] varieties of French
spoken in the border towns and
villages of Italy, Spain, and Switzerland,
have more in common with the
language of the next village than the
language of Paris. From one village
and town to the next there is a chain or
continuum.
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson,
pp 137-138. 5/14
 What is a Language?

So a language can be thought of as a

collection of dialects that are usually
linguistically similar, used by different
social groups who choose to say they
are speakers of one language which
functions to unite and represent them
to other groups.
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 138.

6/14
 Social and Regional Accent
Variation
Highest class: RP
Social variation

Lowest class:
local accents
Regional variation
Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 139.
7/14
 British Social Dialect
Vocabulary 1 (1950s)
U non-U
have a bath take a bath
bike, bicycle cycle
luncheon dinner
riding horse riding
sick ill
knave jack
mad mental
looking-glass mirror
writing-paper note paper
jam preserve
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1987, p. 39. From A.S.C. Ross, 1954. 8/14
 British Social Dialect
Vocabulary 2 (1950s)
U non-U
wireless radio
table-napkin serviette
lavatory-paper toilet-paper
rich wealthy
vegetables greens
pudding sweet
telegram wire
England Britain
Scotch Scottish

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1987, p. 39. From A.S.C. Ross, 1954. 9/14
Syntax Differences and Dialect
(a) Ive not washed the dishes yet today.
(b) I havent washed the dishes yet today.
[Both standard]
(c) They have got along well for many years.
(d) They have gotten along well for many
years.
[Regional Variation]
(e) I dont have any money.
(f) I dont have no money.
[Social Variation]
10/14
 [ h ]-Dropping

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 146.
11/14
 -ing / -in
Table 6.2: Percentage of vernacular [in] pronunciation
for four social groups in speech communities in
Britain, America, and Australia

Social group1 1 2 3 4
Norwich 31 42 91 100
West Yorkshire 5 34 61 83
New York 7 32 45 75
Brisbane 17 31 49 63

Note 1: 1 is the highest group; 4 the lowest.

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 146.
 Post-Vocalic [ r ]

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 148.
13/14
 Vernacular 3rd Person Present
Tense (she walks / she walk)

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 152.
14/14