THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

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A. Nervous system: composed of neurons and

neuroglia.
1. Neurons transmit nerve impulses along
nerve fibers to other neurons. Neurons
typically have a cell body, axons and
dendrites.
2. Nerves are made up of bundles of nerve
fibers.
3. Neuroglia carry out a variety of functions to aid
and protect components of the nervous system.

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B. Organs of the nervous system can be divided into

the central nervous system (CNS), made up of the brain
and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system
(PNS), made up of peripheral nerves that connect the
CNS to the rest of the body.
C. The nervous system provides sensory, integrative,
and motor functions to the body.
1. Motor functions can be divided into the
consciously controlled somatic nervous system
and the unconscious autonomic system.

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General Functions of the Nervous System

A. Sensory receptors at the ends of peripheral

nerves gather information and convert it into nerve
impulses.
B. When sensory impulses are integrated in the
brain as perceptions, this is the integrative function
of the nervous system.
C. Conscious or subconscious decisions follow,
leading to motor functions via effectors.

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Supporting cells
A. Classification of Neuroglial Cells
1. Neuroglial cells fill spaces, support
neurons, provide structural frameworks,
produce myelin, and carry on
phagocytosis. Four are in the CNS and
the last in the PNS.
2. Microglial cells are small cells that
phagocytize bacterial cells and cellular
debris.

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3. Oligodendrocytes form myelin in the

brain and spinal cord.
4. Astrocytes are near blood vessels and
support structures, aid in metabolism,
and respond to brain injury by filling in
spaces.
5. Ependyma cover the inside of
ventricles and form choroid plexuses
within the ventricles.
6. Schwann cells are the myelin-
producing neuroglia of the peripheral
nervous system.

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 Neuron Structure
A. A neuron has a cell body with
mitochondria, lysosomes, a Golgi apparatus,
chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies)
containing rough endoplasmic reticulum, and
neurofibrils.

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B. Nerve fibers include a solitary axon and numerous

dendrites.

1.Branching dendrites carry impulses from other

neurons (or from receptors) toward the cell body.
2.The axon transmits the impulse away from the
axonal hillock of the cell body and may give off
side branches.

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3.Larger axons are enclosed by sheaths of myelin

provided by Schwann cells and are myelinated
fibers.

a. The outer layer of myelin is surrounded by a

neurilemma (neurilemmal sheath) made up of the
cytoplasm and nuclei of the Schwann cell.

b. Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath between

Schwann cells are called nodes of Ranvier.

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4.The smallest axons lack a myelin sheath and are

unmyelinated fibers.
5. White matter in the CNS is due to myelin sheaths in
this area.
6.Unmyelinated nerve tissue in the CNS comprise the
gray matter.
7. Peripheral neurons are able to regenerate because of the
neurilemma but the CNS axons are myelinated by
oligodendrocytes thus lacking neurilemma and usually
do not regenerate.

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Classification of Neurons
A. Neurons can be grouped in two ways: on the
basis of structural differences (bipolar, unipolar,
and multipolar neurons), and by functional
differences (sensory neurons, interneurons, and
motor neurons).

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B. Classification of Neurons

1. Bipolar neurons are found in the eyes, nose, and

ears, and have a single axon and a single dendrite
extending from opposite sides of the cell body.

2.Unipolar neurons are found in ganglia outside the

CNS and have an axon and a dendrite arising from
a single short fiber extending from the cell body.

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3.Multipolar neurons have many nerve fibers arising

from their cell bodies and are commonly found in
the brain and spinal cord.
4.Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) conduct
impulses from peripheral receptors to the CNS and
are usually unipolar, although some are bipolar
neurons.

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5.Interneurons are multipolar neurons lying within

the CNS that form links between other neurons.
6. Motor neurons are multipolar neurons that
conduct impulses from the CNS to effectors.

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Overview of the Nervous System
 Two major anatomical divisions
 The central nervous system
(CNS)
 Brain
 Spinal Cord
 The peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
 Afferent Division
 Efferent Division
 Somatic Nervous System
 Autonomic Nervous System
Overview of the Nervous System
 Functional Divisions of the PNS
 Afferent = Sensory
 Somatic sensory
 Visceral sensory
 Efferent = Motor
 Somatic motor
 Visceral motor
 Overview of the Nervous System
 Divisions of the PNS according to type of control
 Somatic nervous system
 Voluntary
 Autonomic nervous system
 Involuntary
 Further divided according to the overall effect on the organs:
 Sympathetic division = “Fight or Flight”
 Parasympathetic division = “Rest and Repair”
General Anatomy of the CNS

 Cranium/Skull
 Protects this soft tissue of the
brain
 Vertebral Column
 Protects the spinal cord
 Meninges
 Connective tissue membranes that
separate the soft tissue of the CNS
from surrounding bone
 Dura Mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia Mater
 General Anatomy of the CNS
 Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
 Clear, watery fluid that bathes the CNS
 Acts as a shock absorber to prevent injury
 Provides nutrients to glial cells
 Removes waste products
 Maintains normal ionic concentrations
surrounding neurons
General Anatomy of the
CNS
 The CNS requires an abundant
blood supply due to the high
metabolic rate of neuronal tissue
 Brain accounts for 20% of all O2
used
 Brain accounts for 50% of all
glucose used
 Blood-Brain Barrier
 A physical barrier between the CSF
and blood
 This semi-permeable membrane
functions to protect the
environment surrounding the
neurons in the CNS
General Anatomy of the CNS
 Gray Matter
 Areas of the CNS consisting primarily of:
 Cell bodies
 Dendrites
 Axon terminals
 Area where synaptic transmission and neural integration occurs
 White Matter
 Areas in the CNS consisting primarily of myelinated axons
 Function to rapidly transmit action potentials over relatively long
distances
The Spinal Cord
 Cylinder of nervous tissue
 Continuous with the lower portion of the brain
 Branches into 31 pairs of spinal nerves
 Cervical nerves (C1 – C8)
 Thoracic nerves (T1 – T12)
 Lumbar nerves (L1 – L5)
 Sacral nerves (S1 – S5)
 Coccygeal nerve (C0)
The Spinal Cord
 Gray matter: concentrated in the butterfly-shaped interior
region of the spinal cord
 Ventral Horn
 Contains Efferent Neurons
 Interneurons
 Cell bodies
 Dendrite
 Dorsal Horn
 Contains Afferent Neurons
 Axon terminals
The Spinal Cord
 Afferent Nerve Fibers
 Cell bodies are located outside the spinal cord in clusters called
dorsal root ganglia
 These fibers form the dorsal roots
 Efferent Nerve Fibers
 Cell bodies are located in the spinal cord
 These fibers for the ventral roots
The Spinal Cord
 Spinal Nerves
 Contain both afferent and efferent axons
 Joining of the dorsal root and the ventral root
 Called Mixed Nerves
Spinal Cord
 White Matter: consists of Tracts providing communication
between
 Different levels of the spinal cord, or
 The brain and various levels of the spinal cord
 Ascending Tracts
 Transmit information from the spinal cord to the brain
 Descending Tracts
 Transmit information from the brain to the spinal cord
The Brain
 Forebrain
 Largest and most superior portion of the brain
 Divided into right and left hemispheres
 Consists of the Cerebrum and Diencephalon
 Cerebellum
 Located inferior to the forebrain
 Functions include motor coordination, balance, and feedback systems
 Brainstem
 Connects the forebrain and cerebellum to the spinal cord
 Consists of the Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata
The Brain – Cerebrum (Forebrain)
 Cerebral Cortex
 Thin, highly convoluted layer gray matter
 Responsible for conscious initiation of voluntary movements
 Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
 Frontal Lobes
 Parietal Lobes
 Temporal Lobes
 Occipital Lobe
 The Brain – Cerebrum (Forebrain): Areas
of Specialized Function

 Primary Somatosensory Cortex

 Involved in processing somatic sensory information associated with:
 Somesthetic sensations such as touch, temperature and pain perception
 Proprioception which is the awareness of muscle tension, joint position, and limb
position
 Primary Motor Cortex
 Initiates voluntary movement
 The Brain – Cerebrum (Forebrain)
 The cerebral cortex is topographically organized
 Areas may be mapped according to function
 Called somatotopic organization
 Motor and Sensory Homunculi
 Map of the cerebral cortex corresponding to the part of the body served
by a particular region
 The size of the body part on the homunculus is proportional to the
amount of brain dedicated to that body part
 For Example, the hand is very large on both the sensory and motor
homunculus because it has many sensory receptors and requires very fine
motor control.
The Brain – Cerebrum (Forebrain)
 Subcortical Nuclei
 Regions of gray matter within the cerebrum
 Includes the Basal Nuclei (Basal Ganglia)
 Masses of gray matter scattered deep within the cerebral
hemispheres
 Components of the basal nuclei include:
 The caudate nucleus
 The putamen
 The globus pallidus
 Important role in modifying movement
 The Brain - Basal Nuclei
 Normally inhibit motor function thereby controlling
muscle activity
 Receive input from:
 The entire cerebral cortex
 Other subcortical nuclei
 Such as the subthalamic nucleus of the diencephalon, substantia nigra, and the red
nucleus
 No direct connections with the motor pathways
 Send information to the Primary Motor Cortex through the thalamus
The Brain - Basal Nuclei
 Complex role in motor control
 Important in starting, stopping, and monitoring movements executed
by the primary motor cortex
 It is particularly involved in slow, sustained, or stereotyped
movements
 Examples: arm swing during gait, riding a bicycle, or eating
 Inhibit antagonistic (unnecessary) movements
 Enhances the ability to perform several tasks at once
 Impairment results in:
 Disturbances in muscle tone and posture
 Tremors
 Abnormally slow movement
 The Brain – Diencephalon
(Forebrain)
 The diencephalon includes two structures:
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Thalamus
 Referred to as the “gateway” to the cerebral cortex
 Most afferent neurons synapse with at least one of the
thalamic nuclei
 The major relay station for all sensory input (except smell)
 A relay station for impulses that regulate emotion
 Also a relay station for motor impulses from the cerebellum and
basal ganglia
 Hypothalamus
 Located inferior to the thalamus and superior to the brain
stem
 It is interconnected to the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and
other parts of the brain stem
 It consists of a collection of many different nuclei.
 The Supraoptic Nucleus
 The Paraventricular Nucleus
 The Preoptic Nucleus
 The Ventromedial Nucleus
 Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus has many roles in regulating homeostasis
 It senses the chemical and thermal qualities of the blood
 It is involved in:
 Regulation of heart rate and arterial blood pressure;
 Control of movements and glandular secretions of the stomach and
intestines;
 Regulation of respiratory rate;
 Regulation of water and electrolyte balance; and
 Control of hunger and regulation of body weight.
 Limbic System
 A diverse collection of closely associated cerebral cortical
regions
 Encircle the upper part of the brain stem lending is name, limbus (refers
to ring)
 The structures of the limbic system include:
 The hippocampus
 The mammillary bodies of the diencephalon
 The hypothalamus
 The anterior nucleus of the thalamus
 The amygdaloid body
 Several gyri and fiber tracts (fornix) that have not yet been specifically
identified
 Limbic System
 Controls the emotional aspects of behavior
 Connected to the cerebral cortex and brain stem
 Allows for perception and response to a wide variety of stimuli
 Communicates with the prefrontal lobes to elicit a relationship
between feelings and thoughts.
 This explains why emotions sometimes override thoughts and why reason
can override emotion when an emotional response would be
inappropriate.
 Part of the system, the hippocampus and the amygdaloid body
are involved in memory
The Brain - Cerebellum
 Located inferior to the forebrain and posterior to the
brainstem
 Functions:
 Coordination of muscular activity
 Skilled movements, posture, and balance
 Regulate muscle tone
 The cerebellum has no direct connections with
muscles
 It functions at an unconscious level
The Brain - Cerebellum
 Receives a variety of information
 Information about voluntary muscle activity from the motor region of
the cerebral cortex
 Sensory information from proprioceptors throughout the body
 Information from the visual and equilibrium pathways
 Integrates this information and determines how to integrate the
sensory information with the motor functions to elicit a
coordinated response
 Sends its coordination plan to the primary motor cortex
 The primary motor cortex then signals the muscles to elicit the desired
response
 The Brain - Cerebellum
 Cortical Control of Voluntary Movement
 Pyramidal Tracts
 Direct pathways from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord, called
Corticospinal tracts
 Control small groups of muscles that contract independently of each other
 Extrapyramidal Tracts
 Indirect connections between the brain and spinal cord
 Includes all motor control pathways outside the pyramidal system
 Control large groups of muscles that contract together to maintain
posture and balance
Functional Human Physiology
 Sensory Receptors
 Specialized neuronal structures that detect a specific form of
energy in either the internal or external environment
 Energy is detected by the dendritic end organs of sensory (afferent)
neurons
 This information is transmitted to the CNS
 Receptors may change one form of energy to another
 For example, chemical to electrical at the NMJ
Types of Sensory Receptors
 Chemoreceptors
 Sensitive to chemical concentrations such as in smell and taste
 Nociceptors or pain receptors
 Sensitive to tissue damage
 Thermoreceptors
 Sensitive to temperature, either to heat or cold
 Mechanoreceptors
 Sensitive to changes in mechanical energy such as pressure or the movement of fluids
 Baroreceptors detect the blood pressure in certain arteries and veins.
 Stretch receptors are sensitive to changes in the amount of inflation in the lungs.
 Proprioceptors are sensitive to changes in tension in the muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
 Photoreceptors
 Sensitive to light intensity and are found only in the eyes.
Sensory Transduction
 Sensory impulses are generated by receptors
 The energy of the stimulus is absorbed
 The energy is then transduced into an electrical signal
 Receptor potential
 A stimulus that exceeds the threshold intensity
 Graded potential
 The electrical signal that is produced when threshold is reached
 Propagation of a nerve impulse
 Sensation
 The awareness of a stimulus
 Perception
 The brain’s interpretation of the sensory information provided by the sensory
receptors
 Since all nerve impulses are the same, the only differences are:
 The type of receptor that was stimulated, and
 The region of the brain to which the receptor is connected.
 For example,
 When heat receptors in the 2nd finger of the right hand are stimulated by a lit match,
the region of the brain corresponding to that part of the body will perceive pain
 If light receptors were transplanted to the region of the brain that senses smell, then
stimulation of the light receptors would result in an odor being perceived
 Sensory Adaptation
 Sensory adjustment that occurs when receptors are
continuously stimulated
 Sensory Coding
 Receptors respond to continuous stimulation by firing at slower and slower rates
 Eventually the receptors may fail to send any signal at all
 The sense of smell is particularly subject to sensory adaptation
 For example
 When you are in a room with a strong odor you will notice that soon you
cannot smell the odor, or it is much reduced
 The smell receptors have adapted and are not stimulated again until the
stimulus changes
 Clothing against skin is another example
 The Somatosensory System
 The Somatosensory Cortex
 Postcentral Gyrus of Cerebrum
 Sensory homunculus
 Somatic sensory and proprioception
The Somatosensory System
 Somatosensory Pathways
 Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscus
 Transmit sensory impulses from mechanoreceptors and proprioceptors to
the thalamus
 Crosses over in the region of the medulla

 Spinothalamic Tract
 Transmits sensory impulses from thermoreceptors and nocioceptors to
the thalamus after crossing to the other side in the spinal cord
 Crosses over in the spinal cord
Spinothalamic Tracts
 The Lateral and Anterior Spinothalamic Tracts are sensory
(afferent, ascending)
 Travel from the spinal cord to the thalamus
 Receive sensory input from the receptors for:
 Pain (from free nerve endings)
 Temperature (from Pacinian corpuscles)
 Deep pressure (from Meissners corpuscles)
 Touch (from End bulbs of Krause )
Spinothalamic Tracts
 Sensory information crosses to the opposite side in the spinal
cord
 The sensory information ascends to the thalamus
 A synapse occurs with one of the thalamic nuclei
 The sensory information is sent from the thalamus to sensory
cortex of the cerebrum
 Located in the post central gyrus
 For example:
 A heat receptor (free nerve ending) located in the L3 dermatome on the anterior
thigh is stimulated by the heating pad you have put on the quadriceps muscle
group of your sore right thigh
 The impulse travels along the peripheral nerve through the sensory neuron in the
dorsal root ganglion and on to a synapse with an internuncial neuron in the dorsal
horn of segment L3
 From there the fiber carrying the next impulse crosses over to the left side of the
spinal cord to the lateral spinothalamic tract, and ascends to the thalamus.
 Another synapse occurs in the thalamus and the next impulse is sent to the
sensory cortex of the cerebrum where the brain will perform its integrative and
decision making functions.
 A decision will be made whether to instruct the muscles of your hands and arms
to remove the heating pad because it is too hot or leave it in place.
 Pain Perception
 Mediated primarily through free nerve endings
 Sensitive to a variety of painful or noxious stimuli
 Changes in chemical composition of body fluids, such as
decreased pH or accumulation of metabolic wastes can stimulate
pain receptors.
 Adaptation to pain is practically non-existent
 Pain sensation can be triggered by a single stimulus and is longer lasting
than many other types of stimuli, such as hot, cold, or smell
Pain Pathways
 Pain impulses are transmitted through the ascending pathways of the spinal
cord, primarily the lateral spinothalamic tracts to the brain
 Nocioceptors (pain receptors) located in the skin
 When stimulated, send pain information along a first order neuron
 First order neurons
 Deliver sensory impulses from the receptor to the dorsal horn of the spinal
cord where it synapses on a second order neuron
 Second order neruons
 Travel in the spinothalamic tract to the thalamus which relays the
information to the appropriate area of the primary somatosensory cortex
Pain Pathways
 Within the brain most of the pain sensation terminates in the
reticular formation and are processed by the thalamus,
hypothalamus and the cerebral cortex
 The brain, after evaluating the extent of the pain, sends
information back along a designated motor tract to the
muscles that require contraction to move the limb away from
the source of pain
 Visceral Pain
 Usually not very well localized
 It may feel as though it is coming from another part of the body than from the organ
actually affected
 Referred pain
 Results from common nerve pathways that bring sensory information from skin
or muscles of another part of the body in addition to that of an organ.
 For Example,
 Pain impulses from the heart are conducted along the same neural pathways as
pain from the left arm and shoulder
 Thus, the brain interprets heart pain as the more familiar shoulder and arm pain
 Modulation of Pain Signals

 In cases of extreme pain, impulses are capable of stimulating the

release of biochemicals that can block pain impulses
 Among these biochemicals are:
 Neuropeptides
 Serotonin
 Enkephalin
 Endorphins
 These biochemicals can bind to pain receptors and block the
sensation of severe or acute pain
 The Nervous System:
Autonomic and Motor Systems
The Autonomic Nervous System
 Peripheral Nervous System
 Somatic NS
 Autonomic NS
 Sympathetic
 Parasympathetic

 The involuntary part of the PNS

 Operates without conscious control
 Primary function is to maintain homeostasis
The Autonomic Nervous System
 Controls the following:
 Smooth muscle of the blood vessels;
 Abdominal and thoracic viscera;
 Certain glands; and
 Cardiac muscle.
 Serves an important role in maintaining:
 Heart rate
 Blood pressure
 Breathing
 Body temperature
 The Autonomic Nervous System
 Dual Innervation of the ANS
 The sympathetic division of the ANS is responsible for readying
the body for strenuous physical activity or emotional stress
 Fight or Flight Response
 Prepares the body to deal with disturbances to
homeostasis (threatening situations)
Anatomy of the ANS
 The ANS consists of efferent pathways
 Each efferent pathway contains 2 neurons that are arranged in
series to each other
 Provides communication between the CNS and the effector
organ
Anatomy of the ANS
 Autonomic Ganglia
 Provide communication pathways via synapses between neurons
 Preganglionic Neurons
 Travel from the CNS to the ganglia
 Sympathetic chain ganglion,
 Collateral ganglion, or
 Parasympathetic ganglion

 Postganglionic Neurons
 Neurons that travel from the ganglion to the effector organ
Effects of the ANS
 The sympathetic division generally produces a whole body
response when stimulated.
 The overall function of the sympathetic division is the fight or
flight response.
 The parasympathetic division generally produces a single
response at a specific effector organ.
 The overall function of the parasympathetic division is rest and
repair.
Comparison: Somatic and Autonomic
Nervous Systems