Chapter One

INTRODUCTION AND
RESEARCH METHODS
Introduction: The Origins of Psychology
Fundamental Questions
• What is the proper subject
matter of psychology?
What is
psychology?
• What methods should be The science of
used to investigate
psychological issues?
behavior and
mental
• Should psychological processes
findings be used to change
or enhance human
behavior?
Four Basic Goals of Psychology

Describe Predict

Control or
Explain
Influence
Influence of Philosophy
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.E)
• Proposed that logic of philosophy can be combined with
empirical observations

René Descartes (1596–1650)

• Presented doctrine of interactive dualism
• Suggested that mind and body are separate entities that
interact to produce sensations, emotions, and other
conscious experiences
Founders of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)
• Described psychology as the
study of consciousness;
experimental methods used to
study and measure it.

• Published landmark text

Principles of Physiological
Psychology (1874)

 Created first psychology lab at Founder of Psychology

the University of Leipzig (1879)
First Major Psychological Schools
Edward Titchener
Developed structuralism
approach
• Proposed introspection and
study of basic components
of conscious experiences

William James (1842–1910)

• Developed functionalism
• Studied how behavior
functions allow people and
animals to adapt to their
environments
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (1866–1939)
• Challenged structuralism and
functionalism

• Started school of thought called

psychoanalysis: Personality theory
and form of psychotherapy
(Also known as the psychodynamic
model / approach)

• Powerful influence on later theories of

Clark University
psychology
Other Pioneers of Psychology:
Humanistic Psychology
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
• Emphasized the person’s conscious
experiences; unique potential for
psychological growth and self-direction,
self-determination, and free will; and the
importance of choice in human behavior
• Suggested that humanistic psychology
differs significantly from psychoanalysis
and behaviorism

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)

• In his theory of motivation, emphasized
the importance of psychological growth
Contemporary Psychology

Modern psychology has become more diverse, with

various perspectives.

Psychology itself has become more specialized.

Today’s psychologists identify themselves according

to:
• the perspective they emphasize in investigating psychological
topics
• the specialty area in which they practice and have been trained.
Theoretical Perspectives / Approaches
Definition: An approach is a perspective (i.e. view) that
involves certain assumptions (i.e. beliefs) about human
behavior.

* The way they function, which aspects of them are worthy

of study and what research methods are appropriate for
undertaking this study. There may be several different
theories within an approach, but they all share these
common assumptions.

* Each perspective has its strengths and weaknesses, and

brings something different to our understanding of human
behavior.
Theoretical Perspectives / Approaches
What factors influence an
individual’s Theoretical Perspective /
Approach?

An individual’s personality,
attitudes, biases /
prejudices personal
preferences and dislikes.
One’s personal
experiences can contribute
to their ‘way of thinking.’
A person’s education greatly
influences their theoretical
perspective.
Each college and each
program may focus on a
specific approach.
Major Perspectives in Psychology

Biological Psychodynamic Behavioral

Perspective Perspective Perspective

Positive
Humanistic Cognitive
Psychology
Perspective Perspective
Perspective

Cross-Cultural Evolutionary
Perspective Perspective
Perspectives in Psychology
Biological perspective
• Emphasizes the physical bases of human and
animal behavior, including the nervous,
endocrine, and immune systems, and genetics
– Neuroscience
– Focus
– Research techniques
• Different from other biological sciences
Perspectives in Psychology
Psychodynamic perspective
• Based originally on Freud’s work
• Emphasizes unconscious processes and early experience
• Current psychologists with this perspective may or may follow
Freud or psychoanalytic principles

Behavioral perspective
• Based on Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner
• Is the study of how behavior is acquired and modified through
experience and environment
• Mental health professionals may emphasize the behavioral
perspective in explaining and treating psychological disorders
Perspectives in Psychology
Humanistic perspective
• Based on work of Maslow and Rogers
• Focuses on personal growth, interpersonal relationships, and
self-concept
• The humanistic perspective is often emphasized among
psychologists working in the mental health field

Positive psychology perspective

• Based on work of Martin Seligman and others
• Studies how to contribute to optimal functioning and to
counterbalance traditional emphasis on problems and
disorders
• Topics under the umbrella of positive psychology include
personal happiness, optimism, creativity, resilience, character
strengths, and wisdom
Perspectives in Psychology
Cognitive perspective
• Focuses on mental process, memory,
perception, language, problem solving, and
thinking
• Initially based on the use of computers as a
model for human mental processing
• Influenced other areas of psychology, including
personality psychology
Perspectives in Psychology
Cross-cultural perspective
• Emerged in the 1980s
• Emphasizes diversity of behavior across cultures and
the fact that many earlier psychological findings were not
universal
• Important cultural terms:
– Ethnocentrism
– Individualistic cultures
– Collectivistic cultures
• There will be some course assignments later this
semester that focus on “Global” issues. (discussed later)
Cultural Differences in Behavior

• Everyday behavior
reflects cultural
norms or unspoken
standards of social
behavior.

How do you think

Americans would react to
being shoved into a subway
car?

How did you formulate your response?

Perspectives in Psychology
Evolutionary perspective
• Reflects renewed interest in Darwin’s work
• Applies the principles of evolution to explain
psychological processes
• Suggests that most adaptive characteristics are
perpetuated through natural selection
• Analyzes behavior in terms of how it increases a species’
chances to survive and reproduce
What are the differences between a
Psychologist and a Psychiatrist?

Their education and training

Their theoretical perspective

What they typically do, and how do they do it

Where they typically work

How much they charge you

Psychologists and Psychiatrists: Education
Clinical Psychologists
• Ph.D. (doctorate in philosophy)
• focus on research
• most common
• Psy.D. (doctorate in psychology)
• focus on practice, not research
• less common
• very geographically influenced
• *Ed.D. (doctorate in education)
• Specialization in counseling
Psychiatrists
• Have medical degrees M.D.
(doctorate in medicine)
• trained as a physician
• followed by specialized training in
the diagnosis, treatment, causes,
and prevention of psychological
disorders
Psychologists and Psychiatrists:
Theoretical Perspectives
Clinical Psychologists Psychiatrists

• The theoretical approach • Medical school focuses

depends on the school on biological factors
and/or program. and use biomedical
• Cognitive, Behavioral, therapies
Psychodynamic, etc.
• Mental Illness is due to
• Some psychologists may
identify as being an • Illness (brain/body
“Eclectic Therapist” dysfunction)
meaning that they • Genetics
borrow from all • Injury
approaches as needed
for any individual client.
Psychologists and Psychiatrists:
What do they do?

Clinical
Psychiatrists
Psychologists
• Trained in the • Training in the
diagnosis, diagnosis,
treatment, causes, treatment, causes,
and prevention of and prevention of
psychological psychological
disorders disorders
 Psychologists and Psychiatrists:
HOW do they do what they do?
Clinical
Psychologists Psychiatrists
• Treatment focuses on • Emphasize
the cause of biological factors
dysfunction and and use biomedical
depends on the therapies
theoretical approach of • Psychoactive Drugs
the clinician. • Psychosurgery
• Talk therapy • ECT
• Address dysfunction
Psychologists and Psychiatrists:
Where do they typically work?

Clinical
Psychologists Psychiatrists
Specialty Areas and Employment Settings
Psychologists and Psychiatrists:
How much do they charge?
Clinical
Psychiatrists
Psychologists
• Varied based • Varied based
upon location and upon location and
setting, but is setting, but is
typically less than typically more
a psychiatrist. than a
psychologist.
Class Poll

• How much does a PSYCHOLOGIST make

annually?

• How much does a PSYCHIATRIST make

annually?
Scientific Terms

• Empirical evidence vs. Anecdotal Evidence

• Pseudoscience
• The Scientific Method
• Hypothesis & Theory
• Variable
• Operational definition
• Generalization
• Replication
Empirical vs. Anecdotal Evidence

• Empirical Evidence: verifiable evidence that is

based upon objective observations, measurements,
and/or experimentation.
• **Anecdotal Evidence: is based on hearsay rather
than hard facts. It can be defined as testimony or
opinion that something is true, false, related, or
unrelated based on isolated examples of someone's
personal experience.
– People like to share stories about things that happened to
them, or that they heard about, to make a point. That kind
of talk is anecdotal: based on small, personal accounts.
Pseudoscience
• Pseudoscience is fake or false science that
makes claims based on little or no scientific
evidence.
– Motivated by gain (financial, recognition, etc)
– Intentionally misleading
• https://youtu.be/0Rnq1NpHdmw
• View from 0:00 to 1:01 (Rated R after!!!)
• https://youtu.be/0Rnq1NpHdmw?t=502
– View from 8:22-9:25 only.
Pseudoscience—The Warning Signs

Strategy 1: Testimonials rather than scientific evidence

Strategy 2: Scientific jargon without scientific substance

Strategy 3: Combining established scientific knowledge with unfounded

claims
Strategy 4: Irrefutable or non-falsifiable claims

Strategy 5: Confirmation bias

Strategy 6: Shifting the burden of proof

Strategy 7: Multiple outs

Using the Scientific Method
Scientific method
• A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures
that guide researchers in creating questions to
investigate, in generating evidence, and in
drawing conclusions.
The Scientific Method

Step 1: Formulate a
Step 2: Design a study
specific question that
to collect relevant data
can be tested
• Form a hypothesis: a • Use descriptive or
tentative statement experimental
about the relationship methodologies
between two or more
variables; a testable
prediction or question
The Scientific Method
Step 3: Analyze the data to
arrive at conclusions
• Use statistics to analyze,
summarize, and draw
conclusions about the data
they have collected
Step 4: Report the results
• The rationale for testing the
hypothesis
• Who participated in the study
and how they were selected
• How variables were
operationally defined
• What procedures or methods
were used
• How the data were analyzed
• What the results seem to
suggest
Your Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a tentative statement
about the relationship between two or
more variables
– A testable prediction or question
– Someone’s assumption based on
empirical evidence
– Someone’s assumption based on
anecdotal evidence
Building Theories

Theory
• Tentative explanation that tries to integrate
and account for the relationship of various
findings and observations
• Often reflects self-correcting nature of the
scientific enterprise
Variable

• A factor that can vary, or change, in ways

that can be observed, measured, and
verified.
• A characteristic or topic of interest that a
researcher believes:
– might contribute to changes in another
variable
– Might be related to or contribute to another
variable
 Operational Definitions
• A precise description of how the variable
in a study will be manipulated and
measured.
– Allows others to understand how the data was
collected and how the research was conducted.
– Self report measures
– Behavioral measures
– Physiological measures
*How would you operationally define concepts such
as intelligence, love, being drunk, relationship
satisfaction, or aggression?
Generalization

• ** Generalization: refers to a researcher’s

ability to apply information gathered in one
sample to other people in the population.
• This is an important concept, because one
of the main goals of research is to be able
to “use” the findings/results.
– When collecting information from one group of
people, can we apply or use it on other
people?
Replication Studies

• Repeating or duplicating a scientific study in

order to increase confidence in the validity of the
original findings.
• Watch the following video clip:
https://youtu.be/0Rnq1NpHdmw?t=257
View from 4:15 to 6:59 only
Issues of replication and example of
research results being blown out of proportion.
Research Strategies
• Descriptive: Strategies for observing and
describing behavior
– Naturalistic observation
– Case studies
– Surveys
– Correlational methods
• Experimental: Strategies for inferring cause and
effect relationships among variables
Descriptive Research Methods
• Describe a set of facts
• Do not look for relationships between facts
• Do not predict what may influence the facts
• Research may or may not include numerical
data
Naturalistic Observation: Science of
People- and Animal-Watching
• Involves direct observance of behavior and
recording observations rather than relying on
subjects’ descriptions

• Includes the goal of detecting behavior patterns

that exist naturally, patterns that might not be
apparent in a laboratory

• Allows researchers to study human behaviors

that cannot ethically be manipulated in an
experiment
Naturalistic Observation: Science of
People- and Animal-Watching
• Researchers watch organisms within their
natural settings
– An advantage is that you are less likely to
have an observer effect (when we modify
behavior when being watched), and more
likely the subjects will act naturally.
– Another advantage is not having to rely on
subject reports (inaccuracy -intentional or not)
– A disadvantage could occur when a
researcher allows preexisting biases to
impact recorded observations.
Case Studies: Details, Details, Details

• Includes highly detailed description of a single

individual
• Is generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or
extreme conditions
• Can be quite useful in clinical, neurological, and
neuroscientific areas
• May be limited in its generalizability of findings to
a broader population
Surveys
• Designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or
characteristics of a particular group; usually
done in self-report form
• Problems
– Do people answer honestly?
– One strategy is to ask the same question in different
manners
– Computer surveys may elicit more honesty
Important Terms in Survey Design
(and all other designs!)

Representative
Sample Random Selection
Sample
• A selected • A selected • Process in which
segment of the segment that very subjects are
population used closely parallels, selected randomly
to represent the on relevant from a larger
group that is characteristics, group such that
being studied. the larger every group
population being member has an
studied equal chance of
being included in
the study
Correlational Studies
• Correlational study: Research strategy that
allows the precise calculation of how strongly
related two factors are to each other
• DOES NOT SHOW CAUSATION!!!
(not a cause & effect relationship)

• Correlation Coefficient: The statistic

(number) that provides information about the
relationship.
Correlation and Causality

• Even if two factors are

very strongly correlated,
correlation does not
necessarily indicate
causality.
A correlation reveals only
that two factors seem to Can eating curly fries or
be related or that they co- listening to Morgan Freeman
vary in a systematic way. cause high intelligence?

• Only experiments allow

for cause-and-effect
statements.
 Correlation Coefficients
• Range from a negative one to positive one.
----------------------------------------------
-1 0 +1

The NUMBER indicates the STRENGTH of the

relationship.
Closer to 1 (higher numbers), the stronger it is
Closer to 0 (lower numbers), the is weaker it is
Zero indicates NO relationship!
 Correlation Coefficient
• Range: Negative one to positive one.
----------------------------------------------
-1 0 +.48 +1

The sign indicates the direction of the

relationship.
A positive (+) correlation means both
variables are moving in same direction
(both up or both down).
 Correlation Coefficient
• Range: Negative one to positive one.
----------------------------------------------
-1 - .63 0 +1
The sign indicates the direction of the
relationship.
A negative (-) correlation means the
variables are moving in opposite
directions (one goes up, the other goes
down).
Correlational Data: Scatterplots
Correlational Study Examples

A researcher investigated the

negative impacts of dating. He
found that as the number of
rejection or bad dates went up,
the person’s self esteem went
down.
Correlational Study Examples

A researcher proposed that as a

person’s height increases,
their IQ will decrease.
Correlational Study Examples

A researcher found that as the

number of times a woman was
told that she was losing weight
increased, the more they were
motivated to exercise and diet.
Correlational Study Examples

We have all heard the saying…

“The more I drink, the better
you look!”
Correlational Study Examples

Your instructor is aware that for

most people, the less time you
spend studying, the worse you
will do on an exam.
 Experimental Studies

• The only form of research that can show

a cause and effect relationship.
• Participants are exposed to a variable of
interest that is controlled or manipulated
by the researcher to see its impact on
another variable.
• May sometimes include unwanted
confounding or extraneous variables
Limitations of Experimental Designs
• Experimental designs are often criticized
for having little to do with actual behavior
because of strict laboratory conditions.

• More ecologically valid insights may

result from natural experiments.
– In a natural experiment, researchers carefully
observe and measure the impact of a naturally
occurring event or condition on the study
participants
 Experimental Studies
IV  DV
• Independent Variable (IV): manipulated to
see its impact on the outcome of the study
or DV. (must have 2+ levels)
• Dependent Variable (DV): the outcome of
the study expressed in numbers. (shows
what, if any, impact manipulating the IV
had)
 Experimental Studies

• Randomly Select Participants and

Randomly Assign to Groups:
– Experimental Group: Actually exposed to
the levels of the IV (does get the
‘treatment’).
– Control Group: Experiences all conditions
of the study, EXCEPT the IV (does not get
the ‘treatment’).
 Experimental Studies

• Sometimes the control group can also be

referred to as the placebo group.
• Placebo: something that resembles the
real treatment, but has no actual effects
(fake; Ex. ‘a sugar pill’)
• Placebo Effect: A change in a subject’s
behavior due to what he or she perceived
as the treatment, but what was actually a
placebo.
 Experimental Studies

• Researchers often use placebo groups

to see if there is a change in a behavior
that is not due to the ‘treatment’, but
maybe due to the participant’s
expectations (placebo effect).
– Whether done intentionally or not, this can
interfere with the results of the study.
 Experimental Studies
• Researcher’s expectations may also
impact the results of the study.
• A double-blind procedure may be used.
This is a condition in which neither the
subjects nor the researchers know which
group is receiving the treatment, so
hopefully there will be fewer biases or
errors in the data collection.
Effects of Testing on Retention:
Experimental Results
• One week after the
experimental sessions
concluded, participants
were tested to see how
much they retained of
material they had
studied.

• As you can see, the

participants who were
repeatedly tested
remembered much
more information than
did the students who
had repeatedly studied
the same material.
Ethics in Psychological Research

• Psychological research
conducted in the United
States is subject to ethical
guidelines developed by the
American Psychological
Association (APA).

• There are 5 key provisions in

the most recent APA ethical
guidelines regulating research
The Shocking Treatment
with human participants. of Research Participants?
Key Provisions in the Most Recent APA Ethical
Guidelines Regulating Research with Human
Participants
Informed consent and voluntary participation

Students as research participants

The use of deception

Confidentiality of information

Information about the study and debriefing