EE 369

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 8
Transformers, Per Unit
Tom Overbye and Ross Baldick

1
 Announcements
• For lectures 8 to 10 read Chapter 3.
• HW 6 is problems 5.14, 5.16, 5.19, 5.26, 5.31,
5.32, 5.33, 5.36; case study questions chapter
5 a, b, c, d, is due Thursday, 10/6.
• Power plant tour is 10/6.
• Instead of coming to class, go to UT power
plant. Turn in homework at beginning of tour.
• Homework 7 is 5.8, 5.15, 5.17, 5.24, 5.27,
5.28, 5.29, 5.34, 5.37, 5.38, 5.43, 5.45; due
10/20. 2
 Transformers Overview
• Power systems are characterized by many
different voltage levels, ranging from 765 kV
down to 240/120 volts.
• Transformers are used to transfer power
between different voltage levels.
• The ability to inexpensively change voltage
levels is a key advantage of ac systems over dc
systems.
• In this section we’ll development models for
the transformer and discuss various ways of
connecting three phase transformers. 3
 Ideal Transformer
First we review the voltage/current relationships
for an ideal transformer
– no real power losses
– magnetic core has infinite permeability
– no leakage flux
We’ll define the “primary” side of the
transformer as the side that usually receives
power from a line etc, and the secondary as the
side that usually delivers power to a load etc:
– primary is usually the side with the higher voltage,
but may be the low voltage side on a generator step-
up transformer. 4
 Ideal Transformer Relationships

Note that I2 and I2’

are in opposite directions

Assume we have flux m in magnetic material.

Then flux linking coil 1 having N1 turns is:
1  N1m , and similarly 2  N 2m
d 1 d m d 2 d m
v1   N1 , v2   N2
dt dt dt dt
d m v1 v2 V1 N1
     a = turns ratio
dt N1 N2 V2 N2 5
 Current Relationships
To get the current relationships use ampere's law
with path around core having total length L:
mmf    H dL  N1i1  '
N 2i2

H  L  N1i1  '
N 2i2
BL
 N1i1  N 2i2'

Assuming uniform flux density in the core
having area A, then   B  A
L
 N1i1  N 2i2'
A 6
 Current/Voltage Relationships
If  is infinite then 0  N1i1  N 2i2' . Hence
i1 N2 i1 N2 1
'
  or   , where i2  i2'
i2 N1 i2 N1 a
I1 1
Then:  and:
I2 a
 a 0
V1    V2 
I   1 I 
 1  0   2
 a

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 Impedance Transformation
Example
•Example: Calculate the primary voltage and
current for an impedance load Z on the secondary
I 2  V2 / Z and substituting:
 a 0   V2 
V1   
I   1 V 
 1 0  2 
 a  Z 
1 V2
V1  aV2 I1 
aZ
V1
 a 2 Z  primary referred value of
I1
secondary load impedance 8
 Real Transformers
• Real transformers
– have losses
– have leakage flux
– have finite permeability of magnetic core

• Real power losses

– resistance in windings (I2 R)
– core losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis

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 Transformer Core losses
Eddy currents arise because of changing flux in core.
Eddy currents are reduced by laminating the core

Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of BH curve

and the frequency

These losses are reduced

by using material with a
“thin” BH curve
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 Effect of Leakage Flux
Not all flux is within the transformer core
1  l1  N1m , where l1 is the coil 1 leakage flux,
2  l 2  N 2m , where l 2 is the coil 2 leakage flux,
Assuming a linear magnetic medium we get
l1 Ll1i1 l 2 Ll 2i 2'
di1 d m
v1  r1i1  Ll1  N1 , including winding
dt dt
resistance r1 ,
di 2' d m
v2  r2i 2  Ll 2
'
 N2 , including resistance r2 .
dt dt 11
Effect of Finite Core Permeability
Finite core permeability means a non-zero mmf
is required to maintain m in the core
N1i1  N 2i2  R m ,
where R is the reluctance.
This effect is usually modeled as a magnetizing current
R m N 2
i1   i2
N1 N1
N2 R m
i1  im  i2 where im  ,
N1 N1
modeled by resistance and inductance.
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 Transformer Equivalent Circuit
Using the previous relationships, we can derive an
equivalent circuit model for the real transformer

This model is further simplified by referring all

impedances to the primary side (and approximating
by swapping the referred elements and the shunts):
r2'  a 2 r2 re  r1  r2'
x2'  a 2 x2 xe  x1  x2' 13
Simplified Equivalent Circuit

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 Calculation of Model Parameters
The parameters of the model are determined
based upon:
– nameplate data: gives the rated voltages and power
– open circuit test: rated voltage is applied to primary
with secondary open; measure the primary current
and losses (the test may also be done applying the
rated voltage to the secondary, calculating the values,
then referring the values back to the primary side).
– short circuit test: with secondary shorted, apply
(lower than rated) voltage to primary to get rated
primary current to flow; measure voltage and losses.15
 Transformer Example
•Example: A single phase, 100 MVA, 200/80 kV
transformer has the following test data:
–open circuit: 20 amps, with 10 kW losses
–short circuit: 30 kV, with 500 kW losses
•Determine the model parameters.

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 Transformer Example, cont’d
From the short circuit test
100MVA 30 kV
I sc   500 A, Re  jX e   60 
200kV 500 A
Psc  Re I sc
2
 500 kW  Re  Psc / I sc
2
 500,000 /(500) 2  2 ,
Hence X e  602  22  60 
From the open circuit test
(Vrated )2 (200) 2 (kV) 2
Rc    4M
Poc 10 kW
Vrated 200 kV
Re  jX e  jX m    10,000  X m  10,000 
I oc 20 A
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Residential Distribution Transformers
Single phase transformers are commonly used in
residential distribution systems. Most distribution
systems are 4 wire, with a multi-grounded, common
neutral.

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 Per Unit Calculations
A key problem in analyzing power systems is
the large number of transformers.
– It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the
transformers
This problem is avoided by a normalization of
all variables.
This normalization is known as per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity 19
Per Unit Conversion Procedure, 1
1. Pick a 1 VA base for the entire system, SB
2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage
level, VB. Voltage bases are related by
transformer turns ratios. Voltages are line to
neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit
Note, per unit conversion affects magnitudes, not
the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer have
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. volts) 20
 Per Unit Solution Procedure
1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many problems
are already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary

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 Per Unit Example
Solve for the current, load voltage and load power
in the circuit shown below using per unit analysis
with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of
8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV, respectively.

Original Circuit
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 Per Unit Example, cont’d
82 (kV) 2
Z BLeft   0.64
100MVA
802 (kV) 2
Z BMiddle   64
100MVA
162 (kV) 2
Z BRight   2.56
100MVA

Same circuit, with

values expressed
in per unit.
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 Per Unit Example, cont’d

1.00
I   0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8 
    p.u.
2
VL
SL  
VL I L*  0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00 0.2230.8  30.8p.u.
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 Per Unit Example, cont’d
To convert back to actual values just multiply the
per unit values by their per unit base

V LActual  0.859  30.8 16 kV  13.7  30.8 kV

S LActual  0.1890 100 MVA  18.90 MVA
SGActual  0.2230.8 100 MVA  22.030.8 MVA
100 MVA
I BMiddle   1250 Amps
80 kV
Actual
I Middle  0.22  30.8  275  30.8
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 Three Phase Per Unit
Procedure is very similar to 1 except we use a 3
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
1. Pick a 3 VA base for the entire system, S B3
2. Pick a voltage base for each different
voltage level, VB,LL. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base
VB2, LL ( 3 VB , LN ) 2 VB2, LN
ZB   
S B3 3S 1B S 1B
Exactly the same impedance bases as with single phase using
the corresponding single phase VA base and voltage base!26
 Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd
4. Calculate the current base, IB
S B3 3 S 1B S 1B
I B3     I B1
3 VB , LL 3 3 VB , LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as with single phase!

5. Convert actual values to per unit

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 Three Phase Per Unit Example
•Solve for the current, load voltage and load
power in the previous circuit, assuming:
–a 3 power base of 300 MVA,
–and line to line voltage bases of 13.8 kV, 138 kV
and 27.6 kV (square root of 3 larger than the 1
example voltages)
–the generator is Y-connected so its line to line
voltage is 13.8 kV.
Convert to per unit
as before.
Note the system is
exactly the same!
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 3 Per Unit Example, cont'd
1.00
I   0.22  30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91  j 2.327
VL  1.00  0.22  30.8 
    p.u.
2
VL
SL  
VL I L*  0.189 p.u.
Z
SG  1.00 0.2230.8  30.8p.u.

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

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 3 Per Unit Example, cont'd
Differences appear when we convert back to actual values

VLActual  0.859  30.8 27.6 kV  23.8  30.8 kV

SLActual  0.1890 300 MVA  56.70 MVA
SGActual  0.2230.8 300 MVA  66.030.8 MVA
300 MVA
I BMiddle   1250 Amps (same current!)
3 138 kV
Actual
I Middle  0.22  30.8  Amps  275  30.8

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