PARTIAL DISCHARGE

Basics
Introduction and Partial Discharge (PD)

PD is an important failure mode-

1. because it is a common failure mode
2. usually violent- a risk to staff safety.

6 Paschen Curve for Air

1 10

5
1 10
Breakdown Voltage (V)

4
1 10

3
1 10

100
3 3
1 10 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1 10
pd product (BAR.mm)
PD a major cause of early failure for HV insulation-
PD a major cause of early failure for HV insulation-
PD a major cause of early failure for HV insulation-
Relevant wear-out stresses for HV equipment

• T THERMAL Important for today’s topic

• E ELECTRICAL

• A AMBIENT (or Environmental) but

mainly as an accelerator

• M MECHANICAL

These four are the main stresses that lead to general

ageing and also local damage.
They act alone or in combinations leading to general
weakening and ultimately to failure
HV Discharges

 All HV plant/apparatus comprises insulation

systems
 Air/gas, solid, paper, liquid or combination
 Provides “insulation” from HV
 Discharges exist when insulation starts to break
down
– Air breakdown
– Transformers, motors, CVTs, bushings etc.
• windings, slots, pressboard, foils, liquid &
solid dielectrics
– Gas breakdown - GIS systems
 Paschen Curve

 Applied DC voltage and pressure to generate low

energy arcs
 At sea level, breakdown occurs when E field is ~
30kV/cm
 Corona and Gas Discharges
 Common starting points
– Positive and negative corona from rod-plane
– Non-uniform electric field distribution – divergent
lines of electrical force

Region of high
electrical
stress
Streamer Growth Near Positive Electrode
externally applied field gas filled void
E0
negativ ion
positive ion
electron

emission of
Higher UV radiation
energy generation of i
electrons secondary electrons
a
solid dielectric

Partial discharge within an insulation defect

(a) free electron

(b), (c) avalanche
(d) streamer initiation
Low energy
(e) streamer growth
positive ions
Arc Discharge @ 160kV DC

28cm Arc Discharge

An Example of Corona

Corona into air

A Source of Corona

Area of high
electrical stress
So - What is a partial discharge breakdown?

This block of Perspex had

electrodes on two faces- with
a needle as one: the second
a ground plane.
There is a high Electro
mechanical stress in the
Perspex around the needle
tip.
It eventually leads to a void
ground at the needle tip, PD and
then local breakdown in the
Perspex.
The tree then starts.
Tree Growth – a model study in Perspex

The structure of the perspex will break

down to form free carbon. So the
branches will become carbonised, and
eventually more will form and extend
through the perspex as a tree.
The material ahead is still insulating and
high impedance. This prevents any
significant current flow in the carbon
track and a power follow-through is
prevented.

 Thus the discharges are low current events and only partial
breakdowns.
 Eventually the stress at the tips will become critical and a leader will
form the puncture track.
Tree Growth – a model study in Perspex
Tree Growth – a model study in Perspex
PD Definition

• Partial discharges (PD) are localized

electrical discharges within an dielectric
insulation system, restricted to only a part
of the dielectric material, thus only
partially bridging the electrodes. So the
breakdowns stay local.
Partial Discharge (1)

 PD occurs when insulation defects exist which produce

distorted and enhanced electric field stress
 Causes of PD in insulation system:
– Voids in epoxy resins, polymers, paper
– Bubbles in liquids/oils
– Metal depositions/irregularities/contaminants
– Electrodes and insulation surfaces
– Poor terminations/loose joints
Partial Discharge (2)

 Can also arise through:

– Poor design and manufacture
– Damage of equipment
– Poor installation processes
– General “ageing” or deterioration of materials
– Lightening strikes, overloading
Partial Discharge (4)

 PD can exist for months to years before failure

 PD depends on for example:
– electrical field stress
– shape/size/deterioration level of fault condition
– environment conditions - temp and humidity
– load/current
– mechanical vibration
 PD can be trended to monitor transitions in level and
severity of degradation
Common Types of PD

Corona Discharge Surface Discharge Lamination Discharge

Cavity Discharge Loose Connection Treeing

Some PD Mechanisms

 For voids, PD type may be

– Streamer discharge (vapour filled void)
– Townsend discharge (avalanches)
– Small micro discharges
– Glow discharges (low pressure, diffuse, atoms
radiate)
 Surface discharge – often surface streamers, PD
“tracks” – charge interacts with surface
 In oil - arcs/PD produce chemical by- products
– Acetylene, ethylene etc. (DGA analysis)
Why do PD occur?

Practical dielectric insulation often contains voids

or cavities
The voids/cavities are usually filled with a medium
(i.e. gas), often with lower breakdown strength
than the main dielectric (the breakdown strength
of air is ~100 times less than many solids)
The electric field in a composite dielectric is
distributed according to capacitances, and the
dielectric permittivity of the medium (gas) is
usually lower than the solid. Thus, an air-filled
void will have a field stress enhancement related
to the dielectric/solid permittivity r
 In reality the situation is more complex

Vy Cy
Y
X Z X VX Cx
Y
Vz Cz

void in solid insulation

Vx = Vy + Vz
When a discharge occurs Cz is short circuited and Vz is
nearly zero

Vy 1 Cy
VX 1 Cx
Vz Cz

Cx has to supply charge to Cy to compensate

An external coupling capacitor Ck and small
impedance Z are connected in parallel with Cx

Ck Cy
Cx

Z Cz
After a discharge Ck will supply some charge to Cx for
Cy. This is detected as a current by Z.

Ck Cy
Cx

Z Cz
Example – void in solid

Cc: Capacitance of void

Cb: Capacitance of solid in series
w/void
Ca: Capacitance of the rest of the
solid
Va: Applied voltage of solid
Vc: Voltage across void
V+/V-: Inception volt. for PD in void

Groups of discharges originate from

a single void and give rise to
current pulses (pos. and neg.)
Conventional PD Measurement

 IEC60270 Standard (Updated Standard imminent)

 Measures integrated PD current pulse to provide a
measure of charge involved in a PD
 PD magnitude normally quoted in picoCoulombs
IEC 60270 Testing- on- and off- line

The elements of a detection system are

Test power supply a calibrator injecting known charge into the sample
A coupling capacitor to provide compensating charge,
and isolate the measurement equipment
A measuring impedance or Quadripole
A detector
Void Discharges

 Void electrical discharges - 3mm spherical cavity in

epoxy resin
streamer diffuse
Morshuis (2005)

Nakao et al. (1998)

Void Discharges
Surface Discharge

 Initial discharges erode surface

 Discharges produce streamers, charge pockets,
molecular and chemical degradation, resulting in
treeing and complete breakdown etc.

Sparling et al. (2007)

Surface Discharge
Materials and PD withstand capability

Many materials will withstand

low level partial discharge-
often for many years.

Traditional materials are the

best to withstand PD.
• Porcelain
• Mica based materials
• Asbestos
Some new- like PTFE, Silicone
Rubber
Poor resistance is in polythene, XLPE, oil/paper
 Barriers and treeing

But a poor material can be

improved by using barriers.
That is why laminates are so
important

Examples-
• resin impregnated glass-cloth/ mica paper in machines
• oil /paper insulating systems in bushings and
transformers
• Transformer inter-phase barrier boards
Almost all HV insulation systems can be adversely affected by PD:
- Rotating Machines

- Transformers

- Cables

-Switchgear Components
Cable Failures Due To PD

• 50% are third party damage

• 45% are terminations and joints

132 kV XLPE Cable ends- before….

40
Failed 132 kV termination

The core screen

termination-
somewhat misplaced

Should be down here

And where is the

porcelain housing
and oil?

41
Terminations and joints

Partial discharge is the failure mechanism and is

due to poor stress control

Caused by
• Bad construction with continuity of the core screen
not maintained into accessory

• Thermal cycling or water entering so losing core

screen continuity

• Cutting tool penetrating insulation- eg saw cuts

when removing armour

42
Modern stress relief cone

E D
Diagram Key: C B
1 – XLPE insulation
2 – Copper conductor
3 – Stress cone silicone rubber conductive insert, electrically floating
4 – Electric field equipotential lines (diagrammatic)
5 – Region of high electrical stress and surface damage

Voltage equipotential lines – stress cone electrically floating.

43
A Real Case – Cable Termination Area
Cable Termination Area
Discharge damage in sister (not failed) cable

Discharge damage
to the XLPE
insulation under the
graphite coating . It
was taking over a
year to get to this
stage

46
 Water trees in the cable length

Water treeing failures have

been common throughout the
world. Lead sheathed oil-
paper cables were phased out
and it was thought that
polymers didn’t need the
same protection from ground
water.
This is revealed by staining. Through most of the development
stage water trees are not carbonised. They are simply water
penetrating the material at weaker areas – eg at crystalline/
amorphous boundaries. But they create electrical PD at a later
stage
47
 Water trees in the cable length

Water trees are not carbonised

& do not create PD until final
stages and then too late.
Picture- 11 kV cable after 6 years in
service
Cause? End exposed too long after
pull in

But there is no consensus on best method to detect water

trees- but probably a dielectric loss measurement.
Better to avoid Water treeing with an effective sheath
barrier, and not leaving ends exposed after pulling in.

48
Transformers

PD in
Transformers

49
 Transformers

PD induced
failures are
often
catastrophic

50
Transformers Defects causing PD

•Poor connections
•Floating metal components – eg flux shunts
•Inadequate clearances- eg bushing leads

•Floating particles- free in oil say from pump wear,

•Fixed particle contamination on boards- from new

•Moisture and surface discharge

•Delamination of boards
•Moisture and gas bubbles

•Static electrification

•Mechanical damage- eg windings beneath one with hoop buckling

51
Transformers and PD

Not the same transformer!

But note the inter-phase barrier
boards and winding wraps

52
Transformers and PD

Barrier board from

failed unit

And blisters with

tracking on sister
unit

Tracking on
wrap- on
sister unit

53
Transformers and PD from floating components

Here a metal cup is used to spread the load from clamping

beam supports.
But the clamping beam can move over time and lose
electrical contact to the cup, leading to PD.

It is unlikely to cause failure

other than by excess
combustible gas production.

But since clamping is loose

the risk is higher for failure
under short circuit

54
Transformers and PD from mechanical and
thermal damage

Mechanical deformation will only cause

damage if either at the initiating fault- or
later- the winding paper is damaged.
This can then lead to long term PD.

Here there is a clear

thermal fault due to loss
of insulation between the
tank and frame. But it was
first detected by a routine
PD patrol using UHF- RFI.
55
Transformer Bushings

PD is a common failure mode with

bushings, and failure often will lead
to loss of the transformer.
This particular design was used in 19
generator transformers.
• Two bushings failed like this.
• Twelve had high power factor and
replaced.
• Four others had small increases- to
a PF of 0.35% from the factory
0.25%. On these oil tests
showed evidence of PD.

56
Discharge in porcelain insulator

This was moisture

induced.

But there have been

discharges in badly
made cap and pin
insulators, above the
pin head.

57
 Gas Insulated Switchgear

PD in
Gas Insulated Switchgear
58
 GIS- Failure Statistics

Norwegian data:
•125-145 kV: 1.21 faults per 100 bay-years.
•300 kV: 3.4 faults per 100 bay-years.
•420 kV: 2.23 faults per 100 bay-years.
International data:
•125-145 kV: 0.26 faults per 100 bay-years.
•245 kV: 0.67 faults per 100 bay-years
•300 kV: 1.8 faults per 100 bay-years.
•420 kV: 3.9 faults per 100 bay-years.

IEC 71-2 0.1 failures per 100 bay-years

recommended target failure rate for GIS

59
 GIS- Failure Statistics

Distribution of failures according to location given by

CIGRE JWG 33/23.12:

• 41% of the failures occur in the switching

compartments, i.e at the circuit breaker, switches,
disconnectors (13% on spacers). This implies poor
design against fast transients.

• 17% occurs at the voltage transformer, surge arresters

or bushing compartments (5% on spacers)

• 42% in other compartments (22% on spacers)

ie 40% on spacers - often particles from installation
60
400 kV GIS disconnector insulator

These epoxy cast insulators are

part of the operating
mechanism.

With a manufacturing void PD

will reduce a casting to the
shrapnel below- and expelled
with force as they escape the
pressurised SF6 chamber
through the bursting disc

61
MV switchgear and moisture

In bushings and switchgear

supports made with synthetic
resin bonded paper PD is
usually associated with water
ingress

62
Case Study Surface Tracking 2006

•Switchboard was tested off-line

and PD was detected. Location was
using acoustic detector
•TEV MicroTev did not indicate
problem
•Ultrasonic detection very sensitive
for this kind of defect

63
 Machines

PD in
Stator Windings

They are Different!

•Some level of PD is normal throughout life
•First period of running at temperatures is the completion stage of
manufacture. So a factory test is less useful than for other equipment.
64
Defects causing PD activity in stators.

Most machines exhibit PD at working voltage- less so in

pressurised hydrogen.
Small voids producing PD normal
End winding PD at stress relief and modest level tolerated

OF CONCERN
Discharges due to major voids close to the copper conductor
Major delamination in slot cell region
Slot exit discharge- Girth cracks at mainly with natural resin systems
 But with both natural and synthetic systems if end winding
bracing is loose
 And also if stress relief detaches from corona shield
Slot PD- mainly synthetic resins
Migrating core plate
Major end winding discharge- conducting contamination

65
Examples of insulation deterioration delamination

66
 Slot cell Insulation Surface Damage

Slot discharge Types

Type 1 Simple PD at a screen defect-
little consequence

Type 2 Vibration induced damage due

to loose bars. Combined effect of
vibration and PD- SERIOUS

Type 3 Vibration induced loss of contact between bar and core. Bar
capacitance discharges on vibration contact. High temperatures
to melt resin and glass. High intensity discharges-
VERY SERIOUS.

67
 Surface Effects in Type 1 slot discharge

Close-up of damage. Here the PD have eroded away the resin leaving
dry glass cloth and sheets of mica-paper- THE BARRIER EFFECT

68
 High intensity slot discharge from bar bounce

stator core voltage

main
i insulation
r
o
n Coating
c
o The coating resistivity
r copper conductor
should cope with only two
e
points of contact. But with
bar bounce the coating will
be damaged at the points
of contact.
Stator core The bar will discharge to
the core due to the
potential induced on the
The bar is loose and makes contact only at two places now floating coating.

69
Winding Problems – Slot Exit Discharge

70
 Discharges in overhang section

main insulation
slot corona protection
PD penetration area
i field grading
r
o copper conductor
n
c
o
r
e
damaged end-
corona
protection

Detached field grading

slot-exit discharges Conducting Contamination
(vibration and girth cracks) on spacer between phases

71
End winding Insulation Contamination

Mainly an end winding problem

Causes
Moisture from ambient
Water from broken conductor of TurboGen
Salt (BF pumps)
Oil
Carbon
Effects
Flashover
Partial discharge damage
72
Other examples from endwinding inspections

Foreign body
Grey contamination of winding

73
Example of discharging in endwinding

74
IEC 60270 Testing- on- and off- line

Blocking Impedance

Calibrator

Coupling Capacitor

Generator

HV-Transformer Quadripole (if not integrated in CC)

Digital PD Measuring
System PD-SMART
Interfering
Impulses

C-Sensor

L-Sensor
Gating Unit
LDIC HV-Control 2.090
 Lets look at the source first

Stationary High Voltage Test Set

+ +

Control
- manual
Regulating Highvoltage
- automated Transformer Transformer
 Lets look at the source first
Up to 20kV - Test equipment can be brought to site
without too much effort

PD Measurement on Rotating Machines (Off-Line)

PDM-System with external HV Power Supply

Doble 20kV 1.7 µF Prototype Test

supply – Add TD/PDsmart to
complete
20 kV – HV Generator Coupling Unit: CK = 2 nF and
Meas. Impedance LDM-5/U
 Lets look at the source first
For Factory/Workshop Tests size & portability is not
important

PD Test on
13.8kV motor at
repair facility in
Singapore

Test transformer
 Lets look at the HV source first
For High Voltage but low current application even up to
100kV is not an issue - examples

Typical HV source suitable for Cable Tests up to 50kV

PD tests on 11kV circuit breaker
HV tests of switchboards, CB, CT using LDIC CDA
using portable 50kV source
and PT’s up to 100kV (but check
internal PD first, some makes are
hopeless)
Site testing at transmission voltages
becomes more difficult
 Site testing at transmission voltages becomes
more difficult – Sometimes possible to back-
feed Power and Inductive Potential transformers
 Site testing at transmission voltages becomes
more difficult – or use alternative voltage source

Cable Tests using 250kV Cable Tests using 80kV VLF

OWTS
VLF, CDA, OWTS - But does it duplicate in-service
conditions?
 High Voltage Source

• Should be PD free as the PD from the supply can not be

easily separated from the Test Object PD
• A series Inductor or HV-T filter can help to suppress PD from
the source
• When testing Rotating machines this is not so critical as PD
activity in the nC range is normal.
• PD is voltage dependent so the applied voltage needs to be
at least equal but preferably higher than operating line to
ground voltage
 PD Sensors

• Should also be PD free at rated voltage. Voltage needs to

match highest test voltage with some margin
• In general the higher the capacitance the better CC 10
X Cs but 1-2nF is most cost effective & most widely used
for off-line
• Function is High Pass Filter i.e. Blocks Power frequency
but lets the HF PD signals through. High BW desirable
PD Sensors Measuring Impedance & Alternative
Decoupling methods

• In series with the HV Capacitor is the

Measuring Impedance also called
Quadripole . This impedance
transforms the partial-discharge
proportional current pulses to voltage
suitable for the PD detector input for
further integration and signal
processing. The Quadripole needs to
be matched to the coupling capacitor
• In some CC this measuring impedance
is integrated.
• Also has LV Capacitor for Voltage
measurements / Synchronisation
PD Sensors Measuring Impedance & Alternative
Decoupling methods

• Measuring impedance
connected to PF tap of
bushings
• HF CT’s around the ground
leads of surge capacitors
• HF CT’s around the RTD
leads of Generators
• Many other decoupling
options using HF CT’s
Decoupling on a bushing tap

LDM-5/U5:
Switchable Measuring
impedance for different
types of bushings /
capacitance

PD
Voltage

87
Calibration- To ensure that the physical
phenomena are measured correctly
• The PD quantity "apparent
charge" can be determined
by injecting a calibrated
charge pulse into the
terminals of the test object,
having a magnitude that
produces the same reading
on the PD detector as the PD
pulse itself
• To ensure that different
measuring systems, if used
to make the same
measurement, will give the
same value
The problem with “IEC 60270” PD measurements!
ERRORS

• The basis of the electrical PD measurement is the

determination of the apparent discharge magnitude.
• It is described in IEC 60270

• But there is a difference between the “real” PD

magnitude at the defect site and what is measured- the
“apparent discharge magnitude” means exactly that-
“apparent”

• And further- for windings and cables there are other

sources of errors- can be up to 100x under-estimates.
 The PD mechanism- Definitions

Discharge Inception voltage

Lowest Voltage at the terminals which create discharges in a sample. We
can measure this.
Discharge Extinction voltage-
Voltage at the terminals below which discharges once started will not
occur. This is generally lower than inception- hysterisis pending on defect
and available charge carriers.
Apparent discharge magnitude
The equivalent charge level relating to the voltage drop at the terminals.
Real discharge magnitude
Actual charge transferred at the void during each discharge. Always more
than the Apparent charge.
And so the inception/ extinction voltages and the charge measured
are controlled by void and dielectric permittivities and void
proportion.
SO WE DON’T REALLY MEASURE THE ACTUAL PARAMETERS IN THE
VOID!
 Development of PD Products Over the Years – Competence
& Innovation

Input Unit DAQ DSP PC

vPD Filtering Detection

PD-Signal A Postprocessing
D
Computer
vU µP
Software
A
Voltage Signal D User/ Panel

PD with Oscilloscope Analogue PD Detector Digital PD Detector Fully Digital PD Detector

90`s 2000 2010
Years

According to the Technology Available in the Market Doble Lemke is Always Capable to
Develop a Product With the Highest Technology Inside

91
Block diagram of an analog
PD-Measurement Device

LDP-5
Block diagram of an analog/digital
PD-Measurement Device

LDS-6
Block diagram of a digital
PD-Measurement Device

Input Unit DAQ DSP PC

vPD Filtering Detection

PD-Signal A Postprocessing
D
Computer
vU µP
Software
A
Voltage Signal D User/ Panel

PD-Smart
 PD-Smart Measuring principle

Input Unit DAQ DSP PC

vPD Filtering Detection

PD-Signal A Postprocessing
D
Computer
vU µP
Software
A
Voltage Signal D User/ Panel

Input Unit:
 Signal acquisition from the PD-decoupling system, mainly the
standardized PD measuring quadripole
 Wide band amplification
DAQ:
 Analogue/digital conversion
DSP:
 Digital-Signal-Processing module for quick data processing and
compression
 Noise suppression due to selectable center frequencies and
bandwidth (Charge determination)
PD-Smart – Example of full digital
PD-Measurement System

PD-Smart
Transformer
Mediabox
Rotating
Machine
Cable
Termination &
Accessories
To Test Object GIS
Galvanic separation Others
trough fibre optic network

96
Wide-band PD detectors (acc. IEC 60270)

Characteristics of Wide-band PD instruments

fixed values of the lower and upper limit frequencies f1 and f2,
and adequate attenuation below f1 and above f2

Usual values for f1, f2 and  f are:

30 kHz < f1 < 100 kHz

f2 < 500 kHz
100 kHz < f < 400 kHz acc. IEC 270
 IEC 60270: Frequency is Important

• The sensor and measuring

system must be “tuned” to
measure relevant and Recommended
informative PD activity Measuring Range
Gain 100 kHz 500 kHz
• Frequencies between about
100...400 kHz is normal for ~1
wide-band PD measurements
This is where
• IEC 60270 specifies that PD should be
coupling circuit always meet the
frequency band specified above measured

• Frequencies above 1 MHz have f1 fm f2

so much attenuation, that trying Frequency
to ascertain charge levels are
nearly meaningless.

99
PD – Electrical Method

• Used for making direct measurements to

the energized conductor

• Relies on IEC 60270 values

– Apparent Charge
– Repetition Rate/Frequency
– Phase Resolved Analysis (Phi-Q-N)

• Considered to be “Traditional PD Testing”

100
 Influence of Detection Frequency Range
Detection of LOW Frequency Components Detection of HIGH Frequency Components
PD Z = low Z = low Z = low PD Source PD Z = high Z = high Z = high PD Source
Detection Detection

Z = high

Z = high

Z = high

Z = low

Z = low

Z = low
iron core / ground potential iron core / ground potential

Output Charge Output Charge

Signal Input Signal Input

Losses Losses

Location of PD source within the winding Location of PD source within the winding

Sensitivity: PD from nearly the Sensitivity: only PD very close to

entire winding can be detected the sensor can be detected
Slide supplied by LDIC
Instrument Classification for UHF Measeurements
based on bandwidth usage (Non-Conventional)

Class Frequency Domain Measurement Time Domain Measurement

Mode Zero Span Full Spectra Ultra Wide Band

Frequency
Band

PD
Pattern

102
Strategy for PD Signal Evaluation

- phase, u - test voltage, q – apparent charge, H - number of pulses

PD Classification
PRPD measurement

Phase Resolved Partial

Discharge Pattern

103
What’s on a Phase Resolved PD Pattern

(1) Phase (F)

(2) Charge (Q)

Different PRPD
Patterns tells us:
•Extent of defect
(3) N (Repetition Rate) •Location of defect
•Type of defect

F– Q- n (“Fee –Kyu – En”) is another name

for the PRPD Charge
104
Key Observational Features for
PD Phase Resolved Patterns
• Many patterns described in detail in Natrass (1988)
• Look for symmetry/asymmetry in PD patterns between
half-cycles in relation to:
– Phase distribution
– Amplitude distribution
– Peak and Average amplitudes
– Repetition rates (number of pulses)
• Look for constant or varying phase/time differences
between consecutive PD pulses
106
Corona Discharges (External)

Phase Resolved Diagram – PD Pattern

Characteristics:

• Stable impulse with constant amplitude

• Raising pulse frequency with increasing voltage
• For higher voltage additional discharges in the inverse voltage half cycle

107
Phase-Resolved PD (PRPD) Patterns (Porzel 2003 TU Ilmenau)
 Pattern 1: Protrusion

• Asymmetrical patterns in each half cycle

• Pattern clusters occur symmetrically across peaks
• Phase resolution between consecutive pulses constant within
individual half cycles
• Higher repetition rate on lower magnitude pulses
• Patterns widen with higher electrical stress
 Pattern 2: Floating Conductor/
Conducting Particle

• Symmetry between half cycle patterns

• Pulses exist only on rising half cycles
• Amplitudes are equal (peak and average are the same)
• Repetition rate same for both half cycles
• Phase resolution between consecutive pulses is nearly
constant in each half cycle
 Pattern 3: Gap Discharge/Poor
Connection Between Conductors

• Pulses occur across entire cycle with varying phase resolution

between consecutive pulses
• Symmetry in phase and amplitude variations between half cycles
• Normally high repetition rate
• Pulse amplitudes similar - near peaks pulses may disappear
• (Same patterns for ungrounded metallic objects in electrical field)
 Pattern 4: Dielectric Cavity

• Symmetrical phase and amplitude patterns on both half cycles

• Repetition rate similar for both half cycles
• Pulses occur on rising edge of half cycles (prior to peaks) – often
pulses may occur across zero crossovers
• Phase resolution between consecutive pulses varies
• Amplitudes are maximum near centre of each cluster
• Maximum amplitude variations occur the middle of the clusters
 Pattern 5: Eroding Internal Surface of
Dielectric Cavity

• Symmetrical phase and amplitude patterns on both half cycles

• Pulses occur prior to peaks
• Repetition rates similar for both half cycles
• Two discernible pulse patterns in each cluster
– initial higher amplitude pulses increasing in magnitude
just after zero crossover
– standard cavity amplitude pulse patterns
 Pattern 6: Surface Discharge/Multiple
Cavities on Dielectric-Conductor Surface

• Asymmetrical amplitude pulse patterns between half cycles

• Amplitudes not constant within clusters but may be maximum
towards centre of clusters
• Repetition rates may be similar on both half cycles
• Phase resolution between consecutive pulses varies
• Amplitude asymmetry ratio of 3:1 but can be as high as 10:1
Computer-supported PD Measurement/illustration

a) Sine-view b) elliptical view

c) Phase Resolved Partial Discharge Pattern b) PD peak values vs time

115
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity
• But the most important is the Phase resolved display which
permits the best interpretation of the defect. Just like a
fingerprint every defect has distinct characteristics.
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity
 Phase Resolved Partial Discharge (PRPD) Pattern Analysis

W e d ge S ta to r C o re

Many small
voids – C o n d u c to r
individual large
normal pattern gas inclusions
V o id
S lo t

G ro u n d
In su la tio n

S tra n d s
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity
• Phase Resolved Partial Discharge (PRPD) Pattern Analysis
Delamination - thermal ageing often caused by thermal
stress

Pattern and distribution of pulses determines the

location of the voids e.g. inside the material or
delamination from the conductor
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity
• Phase Resolved Partial Discharge
(PRPD) Pattern Analysis
Slot Discharges
BTW Slot discharges can in general not be
detected using off-line tests

Wedge Stator Core

Conductor

Void

Slot

Ground
Insulation

Strands
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity

Surface Discharges
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity

More Surface Discharges with increase in

test voltage, note low magnitude, analysis
by magnitude only can lead to false
conclusions
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity

• Phase Resolved Partial Discharge

(PRPD) Pattern Analysis
Damaged or ineffective Stress relief
section
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity

• Phase Resolved Partial Discharge

(PRPD) Pattern Analysis
Open air arcing
Visualization of Partial Discharge Activity

• Phase Resolved Partial Discharge Pattern from IEEE Std C37.301 (HV
switchgear)
Characteristics for the PD Interpretation

125
Synchroneous, multichannel PD-Measurement

Mediabox

PD-Smart Acquision
units

Control-Computer
Fibre optic Network
Length between the units
up to >2km

High Synchroneous
2-5ns

126
Noise sources and Noise suppression approaches
for electrical PD testing

Windowing - Software or
Sine-shaped Pulse-shaped hardware windowing of pulse
shaped noise repeating at the
same period on the phase.
Filtering - Periodic
frequency
Compensation – using parasitic
selective
sensor and subtraction of pulse
filtering of
Stochastic shaped stochastical common
sinusoidal noise
mode noise

Common Bridge Circuits

mode noise
rejection Synchronous PD Measurements

127
Noise sources and Noise suppression
approaches for electrical PD testing

All good men go to heaven

Filtering & Star diagram
frequency selective filtering
sinusoidal noise
(radio- and communication)

Windowing
Software or hardware

Pulse shaping periodical noise

(power electronic inverters)

Gating / Masking / Star Diagram

Gating, subtraction
pulse shaping stochastical noise
(corona, switching actions)

128
Today
„digital filtering by FPGA-data processing“

Noise Suppression
by selectable
Frequency Adjustment
frequencies
(lower & upper cut-off
frequency)

130
PD Test Interference
• Interference is normally not an issue during off-line testing of
rotating machines but present difficulties during measurements of
test object with low PD. If the interference is continuous (white
noise) then try to measure at a different centre frequency and
reduce the Band Width. This is a very effective tool of dealing with
sinusoidal interference such as radio stations. Avoid for the off-line
test the higher frequencies as the higher the detection frequency
the more short-sighted the measurement becomes. Up to 3 MHz
most of the winding can still be seen. But sometimes there is no
other choice.
@ < 1MHz BW 350KHz (not calibrated) @ 3 MHZ 1MHz BW
Noise suppression – Measuring frequency

Noise suppression troug

adjustable frequencies
Adjust of the Measuring and bandwiths
frequency

132
PD Test Interference

• However in some cases other activities such as welding , portable tools or

crane operations can cause disturbance pulses to appear in the display.
They are easily recognised as they are not phase synchronised (exceptions
possible) and appear as a horizontal line with elevated magnitude. In some
instances these disturbance pulses can be “picked up” with an antenna
circuit close to the disturbance source. When the disturbance signal arrives
at the Antenna the amplifier is switched off for this short duration. Avoid
settings that “gate out” too much of the target PD signal. E.g. 80% of
acquisition time is gated away.
PD Trace with and without gating (interference from HF welder)
PD Test Interference

• The following graphs show high background noise levels. PD may be

present but the high interference masks the true PD. The results are not
meaningful.
Noise suppression – Windowing

Free defined windows by

Amplitude / Phase

135
Noise suppression –
Gating (integrated, seperat channel)

Measuringsignal with external Gating enabled

stochastic noise

Gating:

Suppression of puls
shaped, stochastical
noise via external
antenna
Gating activated

136
PD Smart- Stardiagram

- Highly synchronous measurements of PD at various location

- Clustering and common mode disturbances rejection
- rejection of common mode noises with 3-phase star diagram
- Noise suppression due to selectable center frequencies and bandwidth

Disturbance
hitting all
phases

Galvanic
separation
PD-Smart

Star-Diagram:
• common mode noise in the
centre
• separate multiple PD
sources
Data acquisition and analysis – PD Smart

137
Star-Diagram – vectorial addition
Noise

L1 Star-Diagram

L2 L2

L3
Disturbances
hitting all phases at
the same time

L3 L1
Disturbances will be displayed in the center
of the Star-Diagram

138
Star-Diagram – vectorial addition

Real PD Star-Diagram
L1

L2 L2

L3

L3 L1
Real PD will be displayed in direction of the
related phase

139
PD Smart- Stardiagram:
Multiple Cluster Selection

Selection 1
Selection 2
Multiple Cluster
Selection is Possible

140
 Star-Diagram conversion into classical
PRPD

L2

Noise

L3 L1

141
 Star-Diagram conversion into classical
PRPD

L2

Real PD

L3 L1

142
PD-Smart : Software – PD Pattern

Max Scale Changed &

No Overflow Pattern is
displayed

143
 General Software

Top Element

Functions
Center Element
Devices

Bottom Element

144
PD Test Interference
• Another option is the Star diagram if conducting 3 phase synchronous tests (not yet
in implemented in PDsmart) or if conduction single phase measurements using 3
detectors but at different centre frequencies and displaying them in the star diagram.
Summary

 PD is a symptom of degradation
 Once present – it dominates as it’s own “inherent”
stress degradation mechanism
 Precursor to complete insulation failure and breakdown
Computer Assisted PD Recognition
Data base
structure is open
for adaptation by
the user
Typical waveforms
On-Line PD for PD
Testing – Now Types
a Field Reality

S
egme
ntW
ave
form
s
On-Line PD Testing – Now a Field Reality
0
.03
0
.02
0
.01
Example of Typical Monopolar Cable 0

Mainsegment
PD Pulse on PILC 33kV Cable (-ve pulse)
-0
.01
-0
.02

(Frequency Band: 200kHz to 4MHz) -0

.03

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1
1 1
2 1
3 1
4
T
ime(u
Sec)

M
ainW
aveform

0.006

Example of Typical High Frequency, 0.004

0.002

Oscillatory Switchgear PD Pulse 0

Chan1
(Frequency Band: 4MHz to over 100MHz)
-0.002

-0.004

-0.006

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45

Examples of Typical Noise Pulses

Tim
e(uSec)

(Switching noise at 40KHz, RF noise at 600KHz)

S
egme
ntW
ave
form
s Segment Waveform
0
.00
5 Ch 1
2,000
Ch 2
0
.00
4 1,500 Ch 3
0
.00
3 1,000
Volts (mV)

0
.00
2 500
0
.00
1
0
0
-500
-0
.00
1
-1,000
-0
.00
2
-1,500
-0
.00
3
-2,000
-0
.00
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3
5 4
0 4
5 5
0 5
5 6
0 6
5 7
0 7
5 8
0 Time uSec
Tim
e(u
Sec)
Mainsegment
 Cable
On-LinePD
PDCursors
Testing –from
Now aPDGold© data
Field Reality

On-Line PD Testing – Now a Field Reality

Segment view
25
20
15
10
5 The PD magnitude
0
-5
in picoCoulombs
-10 (pCs) is the area
-15
-20 under the PD
-25 pulse.
2 3 4 5 6
Time uSec

Risetim Pulse Width Falltime

e
 Available Wavef orm Display

0.035
0.03 Available Waveform Display
0.025
0.02
0.012
0.015
0.01 0.008
0.005
Chan 1

0 0.004

Chan 1
-0.005 0
-0.01
-0.015 -0.004
-0.02
-0.008
-0.025
-0.03
-0.035
-0.012

-0.016
Noise
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time (mSec) Time (mSec)

Chan 1 Curs 1 Curs 2 Chan 1 Curs 1 Curs 2

Available Waveform Display

0.012
Available Waveform Display

0.008 0.016
0.012
0.004 0.008
0.004
Chan 1

0
0

Chan 1
-0.004
-0.004
-0.008

-0.008 -0.012
-0.016
-0.012
Cable PD -0.02
-0.024 Noise
-0.028
Time (mSec)
Available Waveform Display Available Waveform Display Time (mSec)
Chan 1 Curs 1 Curs 2
0.032 0.028 Chan 1 Curs 1 Curs 2
0.028 0.024
0.024
0.02
0.02
0.016 0.016
0.012 0.012
0.008 0.008
Chan 1

Chan 1

0.004
0.004
0
-0.004 0
-0.008 -0.004
-0.012 -0.008
-0.016
-0.02
-0.024 Cable PD -0.012
-0.016
Noise
-0.028 -0.02

Time (mSec)
Time (mSec)
Chan 1 Curs 1 Curs 2
Chan 1 Curs 1 Curs 2

Varying waveforms from a single 50Hz power cycle period

 PD Severity

• New equipment, 5pC typical in IEC standards

– Apparent charge measured Off-line
• On-Line results less clear
– No direct electrical connection of sensors
– Wideband detection
– Calibration difficult to achieve without an outage
HV Appa ra tus Na tiona l Ge rma n (DIN VDE) Inte rna tiona l (IEC)
Limit va lue s for
Te st Sta nda rd Volta ge PD le ve l Publica tion Re ma rks

Bushings DIN VDE 0674 1.05 U / √ 3 300 pC (oil) IEC 137 (1984) (oil) Oil impregnated
Part 99/12.92 1.5 U / √ 3 10 pC (GH) (GH) Cast resin impregnated
10 pC (HP) (HP) Hard laminated paper

Ca pa citors DIN VDE 0360 (1.1 Um ) (100 pC) IEC 358 (1990) Identical
Part 3 A 1/08.83 1.1 Um / √ 3 10 pC

Ca ble s DIN VDE 0472 IEC 885-2 (1987) Test procedure

Part 513/07.82 IEC 885-3 (1988) Test procedure

DIN VDE 0271 2 U0 20 pC (PVC) IEC 840 (1988) 1.5 U0: 10 pC (VPE)
/06.86

DIN VDE 0273 2 U0 5 pC (VPE) IEC 502 (1994) 1.5 U0: 20 pC (VPE)
/12.87 1.5 U0: 40 pC (PVC)

DIN VDE 0263 2 U0 5 pC (VPE)

/02.91

Ca ble Joints DIN VDE 0278 Test procedure

Part 1/02.91

DIN VDE 0278 2 U0 20 pC (VPE) Joints, Terminations

Part 2/02.91 40 pC (PVC)

DIN VDE 0278 2 U0 20 pC Pluggable and screwable

Part 6/02.91 encapsulated cable terminations

CT + PT DIN VDE 0414 (1.1 Um ) 10 pC (liquid) IEC 44-4 (1980) Identical

Part 10/05.85 1.1 Um / √ 3 50 pC (solid) (liquid) Liquid insulation
(solid) Solid insulation

Tra nsforme rs a nd DIN VDE 0532 1.3 Um 300 pC IEC 76-3 (1980) Identical
Re a ctors Part 3/07.87 1.5 Um / √ 3 500 pC

Dry Type DIN VDE 0532 1.1 Um / √ 3 20 pC (GH) IEC 76-3 (1982) 1.1 Um / √ 3
Tra nsforme rs Part 6/01.94 (GH) Cast resin impregnated

Ta p Sw itch for DIN VDE 0532 1.5 Um / √ 3 50 pC IEC 214 (1989) Identical
Tra nsforme rs Part 3/04.93

Insula te d Sw itchge a rs DIN VDE 0670 1.1 U 100 pC (HP) IEC 466 (1987) Identical
up to 38 kV Part 7/09.88 1.1 U / √ 3 10 pC (GH)

Ga s-insula te d Sw itchge a rs DIN VDE 0670 1.1 U IEC 298 (1990) Harmonized
(GIS) Part 6/04.94 1.1 U / √ 3 HD 18755

DIN VDE 0670 1.1 U 10 pC (GH, solid) IEC 517 (1990) Identical
Part 8/02.94 1.1 U / √ 3

Low Volta ge Compone nts DIN VDE 0110 IEC 664-1 (1992) Test procedure technical identic
Part 20/08.90

Optocouple rs DIN VDE 0884 1.6 UI OR M 5 pC

/08.87

Table 1: Summary of national and international partial discharge test standards for HV apparatus, derived from IEC 270 respectively DIN VDE 0434
Final Comment
• Measurement of partial discharge is
often a delicate task -
like trying to weigh a butterfly that
alights momentarily on scales designed
for an elephant (sometimes during an
earthquake)

• A relatively low level of partial discharge

is taken as a positive indication of
remaining service life for HV equipment
Confidential Notice

Doble Engineering (Doble) hereby grants the recipient (you) the

right to retain this presentation and materials included within (the
Presentation) for private reference. No other rights, title, or
interest, including, but not limited to, the rights to copy, make use
of, distribute, transmit, display or perform in public (or to third
parties), edit, translate, or reformat any portion of the Presentation
are hereby or otherwise granted and shall remain expressly
reserved by Doble. You acknowledge and agree that such limited
license is expressly conditioned upon your acceptance of the terms
herein. You further agree that, in the event of your breach, Doble
will suffer irreparable damage and injury for which there is no
adequate remedy at law. As such, Doble, in addition to any other
rights and remedies available, shall be entitled to seek injunction by
a tribunal of competent jurisdiction restricting you from committing
or continuing any breach of these terms.